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Digital Compendium of  Forestry Species of  Cambodia  

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Phnom Penh, Cambodia 2008    www.digitalspecies.blogspot.com  

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.

³

northern black wattle, Darwin black wattle, ear-pod wattle, tan wattle [1], auri, black wattle, ear leaf acacia, earleaf acacia, Papuan wattle, wattle [8], coast wattle, Japanese acacia [9]

C. Synonym

³

Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. ex Benth., Racosperma auriculiforme (A. Cunn. ex Benth.) Pedley [1]

D. Other1

³

northern black wattle (Trade name) [1] - akashmoni, Australian babul, kasia, sonajhuri (India) [1] - ngarai, unar (Papua New Guinea) [1] - Japanese acacia, auri (Philippines) [1, 9] - akasai, akasia, kasia, ki hia (Indonesia) [9] - akasia kuning, kasia (Malaysia) [9] - mkesia (East Africa) [9] krathin-narong (Thailand) [9] - smach’té:hes (Vietnam) [9]

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E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

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GakasüasøwktUc Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ smach’tehs [4], acacia sleuk touch [6] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Fabaceae (Subfamily: Mimosoideae) Gunus: Acacia Species: Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.

Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A. auriculiformus is a deciduous or evergreen, leguminous tree which reaches on favorable sites a total height of 25-35 m [1] (25-30 m [3], 30-40 m [2], 15-30 m [9]) with a straight bole which has a stem height of 12-15 m [3] (up to 12 m [9]) and a maximum DBH of 60-80 cm [3] (80-100 cm [2], 50 cm [9]). However, more commonly it is a small to medium-sized tree of 8-20 m [1, 2] or a shrub with 35 m [1] (2-8 m [4]) which is heavily branched with a short bole. It has a spreading, deep [8] (shallow [9]) and dense root system. The crown is large, spreading and dark green with dense foliage. Young branches are slightly depressed, angular, hairless and green. [Bark]: The bark is grey to black-grey or brown sometimes blackened at the base, 2-3 mm thick [3], smooth in young trees, becoming rough and deeply longitudinally fissured with age. The inner bark is white-grey and 7-9 mm thick [3]. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple flattened phyllodes (= leafstalks which function as a true leaf), sickleshaped, alternate, spear-shaped or oblong, bow-like, becoming progressively thinner at both ends, 10-16 x 1.5–2.5 cm [8] (7-17 x 1.5-2.7 cm [3], 8-20 cm x 1.0-4.5 cm [1]), thick leathery, greyish green and hairless. There are 3 prominent parallel veins [1] (6-8 veins [3], 3-8 veins [9]) running together towards the lower margin or in the middle near the base, with many fine secondary veins and a distinct gland at the base of the leaf. The leaves mostly remain on the tree during the dry season; their average life is about 1 year [1] in West Java.

bases. The flowers are 0.3 cm long [8], light-golden to yellow in color, bisexual, tiny, sessile and fragrant. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fused together into an up to 0.1 cm long [1] tube which is shortly lobed and hairless. The 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) form a corolla which is up to 0.2 cm long [1] with many stamens (=male organs) which are about 0.3 cm long [1]. The ovary (=female organ) is small and densely covered with hairs. Flowers are pollinated by insects. Flowering and fruiting occurs irregularly from July to October [3]. In many places the tree can flower and fruit continuously all year round [3]. However, "there is usually a distinct peak flowering season which may vary considerably with location. In the Northern Territory of Australia, flowering occurs from April to July with ripe seed available some 4-5 months later in August to October. Sedgley et al. (1992) found that peak flowering occurred in February to May at Atherton in Queensland (Australia), and near Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia, and Tawau in Sabah, with ripe seed pods available between October and April. In Java (Indonesia), peak flowering occurs in March to June." [1]. [Fruits]: "Mature seeds can be collected between August and February in Thailand" [1]. The fruit (=thin compressed pod) has a size of 7-8 x 1.2- 1.4 cm [3] (6.5 x 1.5 cm [1], 6-8 x 1-1.5 cm [8]), is strongly curved, flat, flexible but hard, rather woody, covered with a whitish, waxy bloom, hairless, transversely veined with undulate margins. Fruits are initially straight or curved, but on maturity become twisted with irregular spirals. The fruit-stalk is 1.2 cm long [3]. Each pod contains 5-7 [3] shiny

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[Flowers]: The inflorescence is an axillary, interrupted spike to 8.5 cm long [1] in pairs at the leaf

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black seeds which are broadly ovate to elliptical, 0.4-0.6 x 0.3-0.4 cm [1] in size (5 mm long [8]) and each is encircled by a long red, yellow or orange seed-stalk. [1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is large-sized and straight. The sapwood is white to yellow with inconspicious ribs and the heartwood is light brown to dark red, straight grained and reasonably durable. A. auriculiformis wood has a high basic density with 0.5-0.65 g/cm³ [1, 3, 9] and a calorific value of 4,700-4,900 kcal/kg [1] (4,500-4,900 kcal/kg [9]). The timber is fine-grained, often attractively figured and finishes well. Wood fibers are relatively short, about 0.85 mm in length [1] and 0.2 µm in width [1]. "The chemical composition of the wood is 59% cellulose, 24% lignin, 19% pentosan and 0.4% ash. Flavonoid substances are also present" [1]. The heartwood is typically hard and durable, but the sapwood is highly susceptible to termite and borer attack and requires preservative treatment when in contact with the soil. Boards may sometimes split when sawn. [1, 3, 9]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 5°S to 17°S [1]. This species is native to Australia but has been cultivated in many areas of the world as a forestry tree, especially in South-, Southeast Asia and in Africa and has escaped from plantings in various places. "Natural stands of A. auriculiformis are found in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. A. auriculiformis occurs in the lowland tropics growing naturally in

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narrow belts along river banks, where it may be dominant or one of the principal species. It also

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occurs in small pockets in depressions and in open-forest dominated by various eucalypts and acacias. It is also found in littoral rain forest behind either mangroves or coastal dunes" [1]. It also has a strong ability to recolonize wasted land and problem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1]. Generally it occurs as a scattered tree in riparian habitats (perennial rivers and semi-perennial creeks), dry deciduous forests, open moist deciduous forests (monsoon forests) and tall savanna woodland. It is a component of swamp forest, dominated by Melaleuca species, usually on the better drained sites. It is also common in littoral forest. Regular associates in these forests include Acacia mangium, A. aulacocarpa and Melaleuca cajuputi. It was recently introduced to Cambodia via Vietnam, where it is cultivated with eucalyptus for reforestation. [1, 2, 3, 4, 9]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A. auriculiformis grows from sea level to 400 m [2, 9], but is most commonly found at elevations less than 80 m [2] (0-500 (-1,000) m [9]). "A. auriculiformis occurs naturally in hot humid and hot subhumid climatic zones. For the natural distribution of this species, the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month (November-December) is within the range of 32-34°C, and the mean minimum

temperature of the coolest month (May-September) is 17-22°C. Outside the natural distribution, a wider range of temperatures is tolerated, indicating the adaptability of A. auriculiformis. Frost does not occur in its natural range, but elsewhere light frost is tolerated. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 760 mm in the Northern Territory of Australia, to 3,400 mm in Papua New Guinea (6,000 mm [9]). However, for most of the planted and natural distribution, rainfall is generally much lower with up to 2,500 mm (1,000-2,000 mm [3], 700-2,000 mm [2], 650-2,000 mm [9]). It has a summer monsoonal pattern, with most rain falling from December to March" [1]. A auriculiformis tolerates a dry season of 0-7 months [2] (0-6 months [3]) but also fast drying (=desiccation) and forest fires. Shade is not tolerated at all, because this tree is a strong light demander and wind tolerance is low, as branches break easily in strong winds. Also weeds may become a threat in the establishment phase. [1, 2, 3, 8, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : "In Australia A. auriculiformis grows on dissected lateritic lowlands and alluvial coastal plains, along drainage channels just above the tidal range, on the edges of sand dunes, behind mangrove swamps, and along river levees (also on unstable slopes [8]). The soils are frequently yellow earths, but vary from dune sands and sandy loams to alluvials with a high clay and humus content. The pH usually ranges from 4.5-6.5, but it also grows on alkaline beach sands with a pH of 8-9 (general pH range:

A. auriculiformis is also highly tolerant of acidic conditions. In Australia, Malaysia and the Philippines it has grown on acid mine spoils of pH 3, while A. auriculiformis is one of the few tree species to become widely planted on the acid sulphate soils (pH 3) of the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. It can also tolerate saline soils. In an experiment in Thailand, it continued growing under saline conditions ranging from 0.15 to 7.25 dS/m, in both wet and dry soils. A. auriculiformis was also amongst the best performing acacias on slightly to moderately saline seasonally waterlogged soils in southeastern Queensland. They are on shallow well drained sandy loam overlying heavy clay or imperfectly drained soils subject to temporary or prolonged flooding in the wet season. These soils are strongly acid and of poor fertility with low values for nitrogen, exchangeable potassium and available phosphorus" [1]. It can also grow in soils ofproblem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1]. Generally it will grow on a wide range of deep and shallow soils with practically no maintenance. Soil types include: Yellowish red basalt, alluvial soils, compacted clay soils, coral soils, lateritic soils, limestone soils, mine spoil, podzols, saline soils, sandstone soils, savanna soils, sandy soils and vertisols. [1, 2, 3, 8, 9]

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3.0-9.5 [8], 4.3-9 [9]). In West Timor it is one of the best species for cultivation on highly alkaline soils.

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N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: This species has been widely planted for fuelwood and charcoal production due its a high basic density and calorific value of 4,700-4,900 kcal/kg [1] (4,500-4,900 kcal/kg [9]), its fast growth and adaptibility to a wide range of site conditions, which makes it an ideal tree species for fuelwood production. The charcoal is not very heavy, glows well and does not smoke or spark. "The annual fall of leaves, twigs, and branches can amount to 4-6 t/ha, which is useful as household fuel" [1]. Besides fuelwood the wood is extensively used for paper pulp. "Plantation-grown trees have been found promising for the production of unbleached kraft pulp and high-quality, neutral, sulphite semi-chemical pulp. Large-scale plantations have already been established, as in Kerala (India), for the production of pulp" [9]. "The sulphate process with 13% alkali yields up to 55% of screened pulp. It is less suitable for high-yield mechanical type pulps although there is significant variation in pulp-making properties between provenances" [1]. The wood of A. auriculiformis also makes attractive furniture if it is large sized and straight and is also excellent for toys and handicrafts. It is also used for wood turning (e.g. framing, flooring), carving, joinery, round wood, posts, stakes, tool handles, boxes, carriage making, composite boards, wood cement and for construction if trees of suitable girth are available. However, the crooked and multiple stems which are a common feature of the species largely restrict its use as poles or other forms of timber that requires reasonable length. [1, 2, 3, 9] [Non-wood]: It is not widely used as fodder, but in India 1-year-old plantations are browsed by cattle [9]. "A preliminary study of fodder values has shown that A. auriculiformis meets the minimum requirements for certain nutrients and warrants further investigation" [1]. The bark has sufficient Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

tannins (about 13% [1], 13-25% [9]) for a possible commercial exploitation and is also appreciated as

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fuelwood. The bark also contains 6-14% [9] of a natural dye which used in the batik textile industry in Indonesia. Lac insect culture using the species as host plant is possible. Leaves can be used as mulch for improving the soil. An edible mushroom (Tylopylus fellus) is common in plantations of A. auriculiformis in Thailand and Vietnam. [1, 4, 9] [Others]: "Plantations of A. auriculiformis improve soil physio-chemical properties such as waterholding capacity, organic carbon, nitrogen and potassium through litter fall. Its phyllodes provide a good, long-lasting mulch. Acacia auriculiformis can fix nitrogen after nodulating with a range of Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium strains. It also has associations with both ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi" [9]. Although it is not widely used in agroforestry systems because of its spreading and competitive surface rooting habit, intercropping of A. auriculiformis with peanut, rice, mung beans and kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) has proved to be successful, while intercropping with corn was rather unsuccessful. It has also been used satisfactorily as a nurse tree in tea plantations. A. auriculiformis is sometimes planted in mixture with eucalypts and other trees which do not fix nitrogen to maintain or improve soil fertility. This species is planted to provide shelter along the sea front and to revegetate mining spoil heaps. The spreading, densely-matted root system can stabilize eroding land. It has been used widely in revegetation of degraded land and rehabilitation of grassland in India, Indonesia and

Vietnam. It also has a strong ability to recolonize wasted land and problem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1]. The dense, dark-green foliage, which remains throughout the dry season, makes it an excellent tree for shade and ornamental purposes in cities where its bright-yellow flowers are desirable attributes. It is also suitable as a host tree in the nursery propagation of sandalwood (Santalum album) plantations, or as a secondary or tertiary host when sandalwood is established in the field. Generally this tree is placed into nurseries for shading and wind protection. "It is also used for the cultivation of the lac insect in India" [3]. Flowers are a source of bee forage for honey production. [1, 2, 3, 8, 9]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class [5]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: A. auriculiformis occurs generally as a scattered tree in riparian habitats (perennial rivers and semi-perennial creeks), dry deciduous forests, open moist deciduous forests (monsoon forests) and tall savanna woodland. It is a component of swamp forest, dominated by Melaleuca species, usually on the better drained sites. It is also common in littoral forest. Regular associates in these forests include Acacia mangium, A. aulacocarpa and Melaleuca cajuputi. This species is fast growing, light demanding and nitrogen fixing, which makes it a popular tree for plantation forestry. It was recently introduced to Cambodia via Vietnam and is now cultivated with eucalyptus for reforestation

pollarding. It is intolerant to shade and weeds, at least in early development stages. [Natural regeneration]: "Profuse natural regeneration may appear after fire or on disturbed sites in the absence of severe weed competition" [1]. [Provenances]: "The crooked stem form and tendency of trees to produce multiple leaders of trees in plantations currently limits utilization of A. auriculiformis for poles and heavy construction timber. Careful selection and introduction of provenances which produce a higher proportion of straight stems should minimize this drawback in the future. Provenances from Queensland (Australia) appear to have a higher proportion of straight stems in combination with fast growth. Several countries have genetic improvement programmes aiming to improve these traits simultaneously, and thus enhance the industrial utility of the species for commodities such as paper pulp and sawn timber" [1]. (For more information on provenances please have a look at the chapter 'Variation and breeding' in the 'Miscellaneous' category) [Establishment]: Stands are established successfully by using containerized seedlings or by direct sowing. Containerized seedlings generally give higher survival rates especially in areas of heavy weed competition and are especially used for Acacia plantations. In general, 3-4 months [9] are needed to raise transplantable seedlings that are 25 cm tall [9]. Aerial seeding has sometimes been successful but appropriate site preparation prior to sowing is required. In the field, weed control is

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purposes. It has the ability to coppice, but it is not a vigorous sprouter and responses well to

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essential especially during the first 1-2 years [2]. A small amount of NPK fertilizer in the first year helps to improve initial growth. The fertilization rates depend on the site quality. The optimum spacing for A. auriculiformis depends on utilization and management considerations. Most current plantings use spacings ranging from 1 x 1 m to 4 x 4 m [1] ( 2 x 2 or 2 x 4 m [2], 2-4 x 2-4 m [9]). "Spacings of 1 x 2 m and 1.5 x 1.5 m are favoured by farmers in China producing fuelwood and poles. In India, planting takes place during the monsoon into preprepared pits 30 cm³ in size which are filled with loamy soil mixed with farm yard manure, chemical fertilizers, and insecticides to discourage termites." [1]. Once established, the tree is quite competitive with weeds. However, good control of weeds in the first two years is very important, as the species is shade intolerant and young seedlings can easily be suppressed by weeds. Young seedlings produce 2-3 bipinnate leaves, which are soon followed by phyllodes (=leafstalk with the shape of a leaf). Seedlings grow quickly and reach a height of 25-30 cm in 3-4 months [1], 6 m in 2 years [1], and 6-12 m in 3 years [1] under favourable conditions. Flowering usually starts within 2 years [1] after sowing. Newly emerged seedlings should receive 50% shade [9]. Once they are established, 70% full sunlight [9] is optimal. It often becomes naturalized where planted. [Management]: [1] "A number of silvicultural systems are appropriate for A. auriculiformis. In India, common practice is to clear fell at 10-15 years, followed by natural or artificial regeneration" [1]. The recommended rotation is 4-5 years for pulp [2] and 12-15 years for timber [2]. One or two thinnings are required with longer rotations, depending on initial spacing, site quality and tree growth. "Although A. auriculiformis has the ability to coppice, it is not a vigorous or prolific sprouter and careful management is required to obtain good results from coppicing. Stump height is an important factor in

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sprouting; better results are obtained when stumps are cut 60-100 cm from ground. Age or stump

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diameter and season of cutting also affect coppicing ability. The species also responds well to pollarding. A. auriculiformis is sometimes included in trials of mixed species management systems in the tropics, where it is grown in combination with various native rain forest species and occasionally eucalypts. The aim of these systems is to use the nitrogen-fixing ability of the acacia for soil improvement, and its fast growth, as a cover crop initially and then as an income source through sale of thinnings, to enhance the economic viability of planting the slower growing species. Plantings in Imperata grasslands have survived fires, but are generally too severely damaged by fire to make A. auriculiformis a suitable tree for Imperata control. A. auriculiformis can fix nitrogen after nodulating with a range of Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium strains in many tropical soils. In the Philippines, 5266% of nitrogen uptake was shown to be derived from nitrogen fixation. This nitrogen-fixing potential may only be realized in many soils if adequate fertilizer, especially phosphorus, is applied. A. auriculiformis has associations with both ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi. The ecto-mycorrhizal fungus (Thelephora spp.) forms a beneficial association, and several species of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizas, including Glomus etunicatum and Gigaspora margarita, are effective. Many soils on which A. auriculiformis is planted have low levels of available nutrients and there is usually a positive response to fertilizer application. For example, a good growth response was achieved in India by applying fertilizer one month after planting. A dose of 30 g of nitrogen, 25 g of phosphorus and 8 g of potassium per plant was useful in soils with a high potassium content. Removal of lower branches of

young plants has been suggested as a means of improving stem form, but when tried in Thailand was unsuccessful" [1]. [Yield]: "A. auriculiformis has shown excellent growth under plantation conditions, and an annual increment in height of 2-4 m in the first few years is common even on soils of low fertility. Under optimum conditions, A. auriculiformis is vigorous and reaches 15-18 m tall and 15-20 cm diameter at age 10-12 years. On relatively fertile Javanese soils receiving over 2,000 mm annual rainfall, a mean annual increment (MAI) of 15-20 m3/hectare is possible, but on less fertile or highly eroded sites the increment is reduced to 8-12 m³/ha. Yield is further reduced on sites where low rainfall or a prolonged dry season is a limiting factor. The expected MAI, without fertilizer, on red lateritic soils in a semi-arid area of India is 2-6 m³/ha. On Imperata grasslands and very infertile soils A. auriculiformis will usually grow faster than species of Albizia, Eucalyptus, Leucaena and Pinus. Growth differences between provenances are large. On a well drained site in Thailand receiving about 1,500 mm rainfall annually, a provenance from Balamuk (Papua New Guinea) produced a total above-ground biomass of 135 t/ha in 3 years, while a provenance from Springvale (Australia) reached only 60 t/ha" [1]. [Agroforestry]: Although it is not widely used in agroforestry systems because of its spreading and competitive surface rooting habit, intercropping of A. auriculiformis with peanut, rice, mung beans and kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) has proved to be successful, while intercropping with corn was rather unsuccessful. Pruning of A. auriculiformis is recommended to improve light availability to crop plants. It has also been used succellfully as a nurse tree in tea plantations. A. auriculiformis is sometimes planted in mixture with eucalypts and other trees which do not fix nitrogen to maintain or improve soil

[1, 2, 4, 9]

Q. Propagation : [Reproduction]: "Acacia auriculiformis is hermaphroditic and pollinated by a wide range of insects including Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, which forage mainly on pollen" [9]. [Seed collection and storage]: This species produces large quantities of seed at an early age. Seeds have a very hard seed coat when fully ripened and keep viable quite well (several years) if stored properly in airtight containers in a dark, cool room. A pre-germination treatment, such as mechanical scarification of the seed coat or immersion in boiling water (1 minute immersion is suitable [1], 1-2 minutes [9]), is required to break seed coat dormancy, followed by soaking in cold water overnight or soaking in warm water for 24 hours. Good results have also been achieved by soaking A. auriculiformis seed in concentrated sulphuric acid for periods of 6-30 minutes [1]. Germination is rapid (6-15 days [9]) after suitable treatment and typically exceeds 70% [1] (40-80% [9]). There is an average of 71,600 viable seeds/kg. [1] (53,000–62,000 seeds/kg [8], 55,000-75,000 seeds/kg [9]) [Propagation]: Seedlings in the nursery require little attention. Newly emerged seedlings should receive 50% shade [1]; once established 70% full sunlight [1] is optimal. "Methods of vegetative propagation of A. auriculiformis through juvenile cuttings have been developed and are now a routine

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fertility.

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and simple operation" [9]. Trees can be pollarded to produce cuttings. Micropropagation techniques can also be employed. Direct seed sowing by hand has been successful. Plantations are established using seedlings raised in containers. In general, 3-4 months [2] are needed to raise seedlings to a plantable size, 25 cm in height [2]. Inoculation with appropriate rhizobia may be beneficial, especially when seedlings are raised in sterilized soil. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: 30,000 seeds/kg. Planting spacing: 2 x 2 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 2,500. Rate of loss: 3,000 (20% in planting site), 3,334 (10% in transit), 4,168 (20% at the nursery). Germination rate: 60%. Purity: 90%. Total seed requirement: 0.27 kg" [10]. [1, 2, 8, 9, 10]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: There are several insect pests of A. auriculiformis, but none are limiting the establishment on appropriate sites at present. Especially stressed trees are susceptible to insect attacks. A beetle (Sinoxylon sp.) can girdle small stems or branches, causing them to break. "This beetle is of concern because damage causes the tree to develop multiple leaders and reduces the length of clear bole. In Australia the wood is attacked by borers and termites, and scale insects are prevalent on young trees. Experimental results suggest that A. auriculiformis has some resistance to termites. A. auriculiformis was recorded as host to Xystrocera festiva at two locations in South Sumatra" [1]. [1, 9] [Diseases]: Also the diseases of A. auriculiformis are not limiting to establishment if this tree. However, a number of diseases were identified as potential threats to the future productivity of Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

industrial plantations based on A. auriculiformis. They included stem cankers caused by a range of

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pathogens (Botryodiplodia theobromae, Botryosphaeria spp. and Hendersonula sp.) and most often associated with stem borer damage, pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) which is most prevalent in high rainfall areas, and phyllode rust (Atelocauda digitata [1], Uromyces digitatus [9] ) which has impaired the growth of A. auriculiformis in Australia and Indonesia. It is not susceptible to the heart rot which affects A. mangium. "A root rot fungus, Ganoderma sp., was observed to cause crown dieback and defoliation in A. auriculiformis plantations in parts of West Bengal (India). A species of Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae) has also been recorded as a parasite of A. auriculiformis in West Bengal" [1]. Seedlings in the nursery can be infected by powdery mildew (Oidium), especially where there is heavy shading. The avoidance of problems through careful site and provenance matching is generally preferred to chemical control measures. [1, 9] [Others]: This tree does not tolerate shade and it is quite susceptible to damage by frost and wind, as branches break easily in strong winds. Another limitation is the relative sensitivity of young trees to weeds and fire (up to about 20 months [1]), but even trees which are 10-15 years old can be killed by fire [2]. [1, 2, 9]

S. Conservation : The estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) is more than 10,000 trees threatened by logging and more than 1,000 threatened by fire. [11]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Australia (Australian Northern Territory, Queensland), Papua New Guinea, Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Moluccas). [1, 2, 3, 8] [Introduced]: Asia: (Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam) Africa: (Benin, Burundi, Congo Democratic Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Uganda,

Caribbean: (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago) Central America: (Costa Rica) North America: (USA, Hawaii) South America: (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador) Oceania: (Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu) [1, 2, 3]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "The generic name acacia comes from the Greek word ‘akis’ meaning a point or a barb and the specific epithet comes from the Latin ‘auricula’- external ear of animals and ‘forma- form, figure or shape, in allusion to the shape of the pod" [9]. [Hybrids]: "A. auriculiformis is related to A. polystachya A. Cunn. ex Benth., A. cincinnata F. Muell. and A. spirorbis subsp. solandri (Benth.) Pedley and more distantly to A. aulacocarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth. and A. crassicarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth. (Pedley, 1975). It hybridizes readily with A. leptocarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth. and A. mangium Willd. in nature and in cultivation. The hybrids with A. mangium

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Zimbabwe)

10

are intermediate between the two parents in morphology and wood properties. They inherit the straighter stem form of A. mangium and the self-pruning ability and the stem circularity of A. auriculiformis. Hybrids tend to have more vigorous growth and are more resistant to heart rot. There is much interest in the domestication of this hybrid as a result of this combination of commercially desirable characteristics. Aspects of seed production and vegetative propagation of the hybrids are covered in Carron and Aken (1992)" [1]. [Variation and breeding]: "A. auriculiformis is predominantly outcrossing and exhibits marked genetic variation. Isoenzyme studies revealed three distinct clusters of populations corresponding to the geographic distribution of the species in the Northern Territory, Queensland and Papua New Guinea; Queensland populations are more closely related to populations from Papua New Guinea than populations from the Northern Territory. These studies showed about 73% of the isoenzyme variation was among progenies within populations and indicated that weight should be given to both intra- and inter-population genetic variability in initial selections in domestication programmes of this species. These regional groupings were also apparent in differences in seedling morphology. Variation was examined at 12 months for 28 provenances of A. auriculiformis in a trial in Malaysia. All provenances had a survival rate of greater than 92%, but differed significantly in their growth performance. At 5 years from planting in Sabah, eight provenances including three from Papua New Guinea and five from Queensland were identified as superior for height and diameter growth. Provenance trials on four, low fertility, test sites in Zaire showed variation in growth and morphological characters when assessed at ages 3, 9, 15 and 21 months. The provenances with the greatest volume production were from Papua New Guinea. International provenance trials were established in 1989 to examine the

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extent of genotype/environment interactions. Results from Australia and Thailand showed that

11

provenances from Queensland have a higher proportion of straight stems. In a trial on an Imperata grassland site in South Kalimantan, variation in growth and form at 69 months after planting showed that the most highly productive A. auriculiformis provenances in this environment were from Papua New Guinea (MAI up to 35.6 m³/ha), Queensland (MAI up to 30.3 m³/ha) and Northern Territory (MAI up to 30.2 m³/ha). There were also differences in tree quality with Queensland sources generally having the lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees. Similar results were obtained 8 months after the planting of a seedling seed orchard of A. auriculiformis in South Sumatra, where the best height and diameter growth, and lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees were shown by the Wenlock River provenance from the far north of Queensland. The relative performance of provenances of A. auriculiformis in provenance trials on several sites in Vietnam has been reported by Nguyen Hoang Nghia and Le Dinh Kha (1996). Provenance variation in salt and waterlogging tolerance has been noted in pot trials. Several countries have genetic improvement programmes which aim to produce better quality seed for future planting programmes. Seed orchards established on Melville Island in the Northern Territory of Australia have failed to produce worthwhile amounts of seed. The best clones are being relocated to environments where better seed production can be obtained. The use of A. auriculiformis as a parent of hybrids, particularly in combination with A. mangium, is of great potential. Many hybrids show desirable commercial characteristics such as fast growth, fine branching and straight boles. Sedgley et al. (1992) found that the cross A. auriculiformis x A. mangium was more

successful than the reciprocal, but fertile seed was produced following interspecific pollination in both directions. Vacuum drying of pollen and storage in a deep freeze is recommended for the medium length storage (3 years) of pollen used in crossing programmes of these species. Experimental A. mangium x A. auriculiformis hybrid seed orchards have been established in Indonesia to build up a base for a clonal forestry programme. Outstanding hybrid clones have been selected and mass propagated for clonal forestry in Vietnam. The Australian Tree Seed Centre of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra, Australia maintains seed stocks of representative provenances from throughout the natural range of the species" [1].

W. Further readings5 : Kamis Awang, Venkateswarlu P, Nor Aini AS, Ådjers G, Bhumibhamon S, Kietvuttinon B, Pan FJ, Pitpreecha K, Simsiri A, 1994. Three year performance of international provenance trials of Acacia auriculiformis. Forest Ecology and Management, 70(1/3):147-158; 31 ref. [1]

Banerjee AK, 1973. Plantations of Acacia auriculaeformis (Benth.) A. Cunn. in West Bengal. Indian Forester, 99(9):533-540 + 1 pl. [1]

Boland DJ, 1989. Trees for the tropics. Growing Australian multipurpose trees and shrubs in

[1]

Boland DJ, Pinyopusarerk K, McDonald MW, Jovanovic T, Booth TH, 1990. The habitat of Acacia auriculiformis and probable factors associated with its distribution. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 3(2):159-180; 32 ref. [1]

Booth TH, Turnbull JW, 1994. Domestication of lesser-known tropical tree species: The Australian experience. In: Leakey RRB, Newton AC, eds. Tropical trees: The Potential for Domestication and Rebuilding of Forest Resources. ITE Symposium No. 29, ECTF Symposium No. 1. London, UK: HMSO, 189-194. [1]

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Developing Countries. ACIAR Monograph, No. 10:ii + 247 pp.; 11 pp. of ref.

12

dela Cruz RE, Umali-Garcia M, 1992. Nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizae in acacias on degraded grasslands. In: Awang K, Taylor DA, eds. Tropical Acacias in East Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a First meeting of COGREDA held in Phuket, Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Research, 59-71. [1]

Doran JC, Guan BV, 1987. Treatments to promote seed germination in Australian acacias. ACIAR Proceedings, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, No. 16:57-63; [In Australian acacias in developing countries. Proceedings of an international workshop, Gympie, Qld., Australia, 47 August 1986 [edited by Turnbull, J.W.]]; 5 ref. [1]

Huang S, Zheng H, 1993. Coppicing of Acacia auriculiformis. ACIAR Forestry Newsletter No. 16, 3. [1]

Ibrahim Z, 1991. Reproductive biology of Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

13

Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Studies on natural hybrids of Acacia mangium and A. auriculiformis in Vietnam. In: Dieters MJ, Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM, eds. Tree Improvement for Sustainable Tropical Forestry. Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Gympie, Australia: Queensland Forestry Research Institute, 328-332. [1]

Marcar NE, Hussain RW, Arunin S, Beetson T, 1991. Trials with Australian and other Acacia species on salt-affected land in Pakistan, Thailand and Australia. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 35:229-232; 3 ref. [1]

Marcar NE, Ganesan SK, Field J, 1991. Genetic variation for salt and waterlogging tolerance of Acacia auriculiformis.. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 35:82-86; 6 ref. [1]

Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1996. Climatic requirements of some main plantation tree species in Vietnam. In: Booth TH, ed, Matching Trees and Sites. ACIAR Proceedings No. 63, 43-49. [1]

Nguyen Hoang Nghia, Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Acacia species and provenance selection for large-scale planting in Vietnam. In: Dieters MJ, Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM, eds. Tree Improvement for Sustainable Tropical Forestry. Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Gympie: Queensland Forestry Research Institute, 443-448. [1]

Nor Aini AS, 1993. Recovery of Acacia auriculiformis from fire damage. Forest Ecology and Management, 62(1-4):99-105; 9 ref. [1] Nor Aini AS, Kamis Awang, Venkateswarlu P, Abd Latib Senin, 1994. Three-year performance of Acacia auriculiformis provenances at Serdang, Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science, 17(2):95-102; 27 ref.

Nor Aini AS, Kamis Awang, Mansor Mohd Rashid, Abd Latib Senin, 1994. Provenance trial of Acacia auriculiformis in Peninsular Malaysia: 12-month performance. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 6(3):249-256; 25 ref. [1]

Pinyopusarerk K, 1990. Acacia auriculiformis: an annotated bibliography. Winrock International and Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. [1]

Turnbull JW, Awang K, 1997. Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. In: Faridah Hanum I, van der Maesen LJG, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11. Auxiliary plants. Leiden, the Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers, 52-56. [1]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

14

Vuthy, C. C. 2004. Study of the effects of potting media on growth performance of Acacia auriculiformis seedlings in the nursery of Svay Reang Forestry Triage. MSc thesis, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh. 78 pp. [10]

Yantasath K, Anusontpornperm S, Utistham T, Soontornrangson W, Watanatham S, 1993. Acacias for fuelwood and charcoal In: Awang K, Taylor DA, eds. Acacias for Rural, Industrial and Environmental Development. Proceedings of the Second meeting of Consultative Group for Research and Development of Acacias (COGREDA). Udorn Thani, Thailand: Winrock International and FAO, 144-152. [1]

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[2] NFTA / FACT, 1989-1999: Agroforestry Species and Technologies - a compilation of the highlights and factsheets. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association (NFTA), Waimanalo Hawaii.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. Hanoi

15

[4] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[5] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[6] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[7] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

[8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

[9] http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID= 10 (Internet source)

[10] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom Penh

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04. htm (Internet source)

16

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa] ³

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa [4]

B. English name (s)

³

Golden Apple, Bengal quince, bael fruit, bael tree;[4,6,9,19]

C. Synonym

³

Feronia pellucida, Crateva marmelos [9]

D. Other1

³

Oranger de Malabar (French) [4] bnau, (Cambodia); maja,

A. Latin name

(s)

maja batu, (Indonesia); toum (Laos); bilak, bila, bel (Malaysia); opesheet, ohshit (Burma); matum, tum, ma pin (Thailand); trái mam (Vietnam) [6].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phnëu [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

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Kingdom: Viridiplantae

1

Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Rutaceae Gunus: Aegle Species: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Source :[4 ; 11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 13 m, with slender drooping branches and rather shabby crown [5]. A small, deciduous tree up to 15 m high and 50 cm diameter with 1-2 cm long spines on older branches. Trunk usually fluted at base [6], limbs often spiny (9). [Bark]: Pale brown or greyish, smooth or finely fissured and flaking, armed with long, straight spines, 1.2-2.5 cm, singly or in pairs, often with a slimy sap oozing from cut parts [5,9]. [Leaves]: Trifoliate, alternate, on stalk 2-4 cm long. Each leaflet 5-14 x 2-6 cm, ovate with tapering or pointed tip and rounded base, untoothed or with shallow rounded teeth. Young leaves pale green or pinkish, finely hairy, mature leaves dark green , completely smooth. 4-12 pairs of side-veins, joined at margin, raised above. End leaflet with long stalk, 0.5-3.0 cm, side ones with very short stalks, <0.2 mm [5]. Terminal leaflet is obovate and slightly larger (7.5 x 4.8 cm) [6]. [Flowers]: 1.5-2.0 cm, pale green, or yellowish, sweetly scented, bisexual, in short drooping unbranched clusters at end of twigs and leaf axils, usually appearing with young leaves. Calyx flat with 4(5) small teeth, 4(5) petals 6-8 mm, overlapping in bud. Many stamens with short filaments, and pale brown anthers, style short, ovary bright green, disc inconspicuous [5]. Inflorescence a raceme 45 cm long, axillary panicles (9), from the leaf corner with greenish white flowers, about 2 cm in diameter [6]. [Fruits]: 5-12 cm, globose or slightly pear-shaped, with thick, hard rind, not splitting. Inside 8-15 sections, filled with aromatic, slimy orange pulp, each section with 6-10 oblong seeds densely clothed with thick, fibrous hairs [5]. Fruits smooth, irregular roundish, grey or yellowish, 5.0-12.5 cm in

pulp [6,9].

I. Wood properties: No detailed technological information available; fine grained, but with small dimensions [9]. The wood is strongly aromatic when freshly cut. It is gray-white, hard, but not durable; has been used for carts and construction, though it is inclined to warp and crack during curing. [20].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Native of northern Indian Subcontinent, Indian Peninsula [Coromandel), southern parts of the Himalayas, cultivated elsewhere; nowadays in Sri Lanka, Nepal, Burma, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines [4,6,12]. Mention of A. marmelos has been found in writings dating back to 800 BC. It is cultivated throughout India, mainly in temple gardens, because of its status as a sacred tree; also in Pakistan and northern Malaysia, the drier areas of Java, and to a limited extent on northern Luzon in the Philippine Islands where it first fruited in 1914. It is grown in some Egyptian gardens, and in Surinam and Trinidad. Seeds were sent from Lahore in 1909 [20]. The tree grows wild in dry forests of the Indian subcontinent and south of the Himalaya region. In Cambodia a roadside tree.[4] In India A. marmelos, the golden apple, occurs scattered in dry, open forests [4,5].

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diameter, often with hard woody shell, 6-10 seeds embedded in sweet, orange-colored, clear, sticky

2

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Occurs wild in dry forests and less disturbed forests; a hardy, subtropical species tolerating temperature extremes from minus 7 to plus 49 ºC, growing in swampy as well as dry soils. It flowers and fruits well only where there is a pronounced dry season, it is a xerophytic tree [6,9]. A. marmelos grows from 0-1200 m, with mean annual precipitation ranging from 500 to 4000mm/ m², distributed evenly over two seasons. However, the tree will survive up to 8 months of dry season. While mean annual temperature may vary between 13ºC and 32ºC, the mean of the hottest month may vary from 30ºC-43ºC, minimum for the coldest month varying between 4ºC and 22ºC. The absolute minimum temperatures cover an astonishing range of minus 1ºC to minus 22ºC [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : A tolerant species, grows on wet as well as dry soils [6]. A. marmelos prefers that soil texture is in the range medium to heavy, but that free drainage prevails, tolerating seasonal waterlogging. Soil reaction should be neutral or slightly alkaline, while the soil may be shallow. The species will survive drought, shade and even frost for a limited time [12]. Soil type: A. marmelos is said to do best on rich, well-drained soil, but it has grown well and fruited on the oolitic limestone of southern Florida. It also grows well in swampy, stony or even very alkaline soils having a pH range from 5 to 8. In India it has

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the reputation of thriving where other fruit trees cannot survive [20].

3

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Wood suitable for small implements like handles; also suitable as firewood [4,9, 17]; if large enough suitable for round wood; posts; stakes; piles; building poles; roundwood structures; wood ware; industrial and domestic wood ware; toys; turnery; furniture; wood based materials, fuelwood and charcoal [12,17]. Normal use is for carving and small turnery, handles of implements, for pestles and combs; it can be finely polished [27]. [Non-Wood]: The gum in which seeds are embeddedis most abundant in wild fruit, particularly when these are still unripe. It is widely used as a household glue while jewelers like it as an adhesive in their professional work. Occasionally it is used in replacement of soap [27]. Another application is as additive to plaster used in waterproofing wells but also added to cement when building walls. Artist mix it with their water colors and use it as a protective coating for paintings [27]. It is cultivated throughout India, mainly in temple gardens, because of its status as a sacred tree; also in Pakistan and northern Malaysia A fruit tree, cultivated mostly on Indian subcontinent; ripe fruit is eaten fresh, processed in drinks, sherbet, syrup or jam; or cut in slices and dried for later use. From mucilage around unripe fruit a

household glue is prepared, used as adhesive in jewellery shops. Decorative boxes made from hard fruit shell and from the wood [6,9]. A. marmelos fruits may be cut in half, or the soft types broken open, and the pulp, dressed with palm sugar, eaten for breakfast, as is a common practice in Indonesia. The pulp is often processed as nectar. Beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar makes a popular drink called sherbet in India. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind [20]. Mature but still unripe fruits are made into jam, with the addition of citric acid. A confection, bael fruit toffee, is prepared by combining the pulp with sugar, glucose, skimmed milk powder and hydrogenated fat. Indian food technologists view the prospects for expanded bael fruit processing as highly promising [20]. The young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand and used to season food in Indonesia. They are said to reduce the appetite. An infusion of the flowers is a cooling drink. The food value per 100 g of fresh bael fruit as analyzed in India and the Philippines is: water 54.96-61.5 g, protein 1.8-2.62 g, fat 0.2-0.39 g, carbohydrates 28.11-31.8 g, ash 1.04-1.7 g, carotene55 mg, thiamine 0.13 mg, riboflavin1.19 mg, niacin 1.1 mg, ascorbic acid 8-60 mg and tartaric acid 2.11 mg [20]. A pungent, mycotoxic oil is extracted from the fruit rind and used in perfumery and soap making [9]. The essential oil of the leaves contains d-limonene, 56% a-d-phellandrene, cineol, citronellal, citral; 17% p-cyrnene, 5% cumin aldehyde. The limonene-rich oil has been distilled from the rind for scenting hair oil [20].

types. The rind contains up to 20%. Tannin is also present in the leaves. The rind of the unripe fruit is employed in tanning and also yields a yellow dye for calico and silk fabrics [9,20]. The leaves and twigs are lopped for fodder. [20]. May be used as living hedge because of the spiny branches [9]. Medicine: Leaves, bark, pulp and fruit used in local medicine The leaves are said to cause abortion and sterility in women. The bark is used as a fish poison in Celebes. Tannin, ingested frequently and in quantity over a long period of time, is antinutrient and carcinogenic. Leaf extract from A. marmelos has been found to have insecticidal activity against the brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål), an important pest of rice plants in Asia [9,20]. A decoction of the unripe fruit, with fennel and ginger, is prescribed in cases of hemorrhoids. It has been surmised that the psoralen in the pulp increases tolerance of sunlight and aids in the maintaining of normal skin color. It is employed in the treatment of leucoderma. Marmelosin derived from the pulp is given as a laxative and diuretic. In large doses, it lowers the rate of respiration, depresses heart action and causes sleepiness. For medicinal use, the young fruits, while still tender, are commonly sliced horizontally and sun-dried and sold in local markets. They are much exported to Malaysia and Europe.

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Tannin or dyestuff: There is as much as 9% tannin in the pulp of wild fruits, less in the cultivated

4

Because of the astringency, especially of the wild fruits, the unripe bael is most prized as a means of halting diarrhea and dysentery, which are prevalent in India in the summer months [20]. There is as much as 9% tannin in the pulp of wild fruits, less in the cultivated types. The rind contains up to 20%. Tannin is also present in the leaves. The rind of the unripe fruit is employed in tanning and also yields a yellow dye for calico and silk fabrics [20]. Other products: The fruit pulp has detergent action and has been used for washing clothes. The shell of hard fruits has been fashioned into pill- and snuff boxes, sometimes decorated with gold and silver. A cologne is obtained by distillation from the flowers. In the Hindu culture, the leaves are indispensable offerings to the 'Lord Shiva' [20]. The tree is very sacred in the Hindu religion. [4,5,6,9,12,19,20] Aegle marmelos is a species highly adaptable to different environmental conditions. It provides basic materials for tanning and medicinal applications and fruit as supplement to daily food. This makes it a suitable component of agroforestry landuse [12].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : Stand establishment promises most success by using planting stock or, where available, wildlings A. marmelos is able to form suckers, to coppice and regenerate rapidly, however, it is not a plantaton

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

tree in the common sense [12].

5

Q. Propagation : Aegle marmelos is planted in low numbers as fruit and cultural tree, by seeds, which are regarded as recalcitrant [12], or by dividing suckers [9]. Aegle marmelos is commonly grown from seed in nurseries and transplanted into the field. Seedlings show great variation in form, size, texture of rind, quantity and quality of pulp and number of seeds. The flavor ranges from disagreeable to pleasant. Therefore, superior types must be multiplied vegetatively. Experimental shield-budding onto related species of Afraegle and onto Swinglea glutinosa Merr. has been successful. Occasionally, air-layers or root cuttings have been used for propagation [20].

R. Hazards and protection : The bael fruit seems to be relatively free from pests and diseases except for the fungi causing deterioration in storage [20].

S. Conservation : Not a threatened species [9].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Indian Subcontinent, southern Himalayas, native; Indochina to Indonesia and Philippines, introduced and naturalized [12].

V. Miscellaneous4 : Rutaceae belong to an order of 16 families known as Sapindales. Aegle belongs to the subfamily of Aurantioideae which includes the three genera Citrus, Fortunella and Poncirus. Citrus is the most important genus with 60 mostly cultivated species, among them: lemon (Citrus limon), the citron (C. medica), the sour or Seville orange (C.aurantium), the edible or sweet orange (C.sinensis), the mandarins, satsumas, and tangerines (C. reticulata), the limes (C. aurantifolia), and the grapefruit (C. paradisi). Lesser known fruits include the qumquats, belonging to the genus Fortunella, and the inedible trifoliate orange, Poncirus trifoliata [11]. Only one species of the Rutaceae has any value as timber, yielding valuable hardwoods, namely the West Indian Silkwood, Xanthoxylum flavum.[11]

W. Further readings5 : Ahmal,I., Kaur, A.1998: Study on minor seed oils. Journal of Oil Tech. Association of India. 30(3), 114-116, 15 ref. Alam, M.M., Siddiqui, M.B., Husain,W. 1990: Treatment of diabetes through herbal drugs in rural India. Fitoterapia 61(3) 240-242, 2 ref. Ganguli, L.K. 1994: Fungitoxic effect of certain plant extracts against rice blast ( Pyriaelaria oryzae)

ref. Singh RV, 1982. Fodder trees of India. Fodder trees of India., xv + 663 pp.; 34 pp. ref. Singh SP, 1989. Wasteland development. Wasteland development., xx + 227 pp.; 96 ref. Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1981. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Volume III. Delhi, India; Controller of Publications. Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts., 446 pp.; [and fig.]; many ref. Maikhuri, R.K., Semval, R.L., Singh,A.m and Nautiyal, M.C. 1994: Wild fruit as a contribution to sustainable rural development - a case study from the Garhwal Himalaya. Int. J. of Sust. Dev.& World Ecology 1(1) 56-58, 19 ref. Singh, S.P. 1992: Budding in some frruit crops - a review. Advances in Horticulture and Forestry 2: 84-97, 36 ref.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

and brown spot pathogen (Helminthosporium oryzae): Environment and Ecology 12(3) 731-733, 10

6

X. References: 4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House;

Phnom Penh, 915 pp. 5)

Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest

Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp. 6)

Jensen, M. 2001:Trees and Fruit of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,

Bangkok; 224 pp. 9)

Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide.

Thames& Hudson Ltd. London. 484 pp. 12)

CABI Forestry Compendium 2003 (on CD)

11)

Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York;

336 pp. 17)

Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp. 19)

Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Margraf Publ., Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

7

20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ). 27)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/ BotanicList. asp

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib] ³

Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

Afzelia siamica Craib. [1], Pahudia cochinchinensis Pierre

A. Latin name

(s)

[3], Pahudia xylocarpa Kurz. [13], Afzelia cochinchinensis (Pierre) J. Leonard [6], Afzelia siamica Craib [2]

D. Other1

³

mai te kha, tae kha, kha, go ca te, kha te kha (Laos) [1, 6, 13] - go do, c[af]te, g[ox]d[or], g[ox]t[of]te (Vietnam) [1, 6, 13]- makha-mong, makhaa-hau-kham, makhaa-laung, makhaa-mong, makhaa-yai (Thailand) [1, 6, 13]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

ebg Source: [9]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ beng [3], kheng [6] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Fabaceae [2]/ Leguminosae [5] Sub-Family: Caesalpinioidae [12]

Gunus: Afzelia J.E. Smith Species: Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib Source :[ 2,5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A. xylocarpa is a large deciduous, broad-leaved tree species that can reach a height up to 30 m [1] (15-20 sometimes up to 30 m [3, 4, 5, 6]). The stem is branchless for 6-9 m [7, 13] and may reach a DBH of 80-150 cm [1] (average DBH: 60-100 cm [5], 150-200 cm [7], more than 100 cm [13]). It has a tendency to be crooked and forked and often produces buttresses. The roots show up on the ground. The crown is broad and rounded with big and angular branches. [Bark]: The outer bark is greyish-yellow and rough, with many brown holes. The inner bark is reddish and forms burls when cut. [Leaves]: The leaves are pinnate, with 3-5 pairs [1] of rounded, oval and hairless leaflets which are 56 cm long [3, 4] (5-9 cm long [1, 7]) and 4-5 cm wide [1]. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=panicle) bears flowers which are small, with 7-8 fertile (=male organs) up to 3 cm long [1] and 3 sterile stamens which are shorter. In Vietnam it flowers in March-April [1]. [Fruit]: The tree fruits in September-December [1] (October-December [13], March -May [3]). There is a masting period every two years. The fruit (=woody pod) is 15-20 cm long and 7-9 cm wide [1], elliptical-oblong, lignified when mature and of black color. It is dehiscent (=opening spontaneously when ripe) but can remain for a long time on the tree before it opens. The seeds are large, ovoid, trasversally arranged, shiny black or dark brown with a thick seed coat. There are 110-160 seeds per kg [1]. [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13]

I. Wood properties: brown, often with some streaks, and distinctive from the grey-white sapwood. The wood is diffuseporous with a density of 0.85-0.9 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content (basic specific gravity: 0.4-0.75 g/cm³ [12]). "The texture is moderately fine to moderately coarse. Planed surfaces are often glossy. The wood seasons well only with little shrinkage and warping. It is moderately difficult to work, but easy in comparison with other high-density woods. The wood takes a high finish. It is very durable with a durability under exposure of about 10 years in tropical conditions. Other wood properties: "For A. xylocarpa at 15% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is 95-125 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 53-65 N/mm² and shear about 17 N/mm²" [7]. [7, 12]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 29°N to 10°N [6]. Afzelia xylocarpa is a tree species which occurs on well-drained flatlands or transitional zones between evergreen and dry open dipterocarp forest in mixed deciduous forests that stretch from Eastern India across Myanmar to Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. "The upper canopy layer may reach 30 m or more, a secondary tree layer ranges between 10 and 20 m. Tree canopies are usually closed and the portion of deciduous trees varies, but is above 50%. Teak (Tectona grandis) can be the dominant species, increasing the economic importance of these forests"

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[Wood Properties]: Afzelia wood is heavy and hard. The heartwood is reddish-yellow, red to dirty red-

2

[14]. Other typical species are Xylia spp., Terminalia spp., Dalbergia oliveri, Pterocarpus macropcarpus, Pentacme spp., Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Tetrameles nudiflora or Lagerstroemia calyculata. It is also found in lowland primary forest. Trees occur rather scattered manner and do not usually form pure stands. [3, 4, 6, 7, 14]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : In its natural area of distribution, it grows within an altitude range of 100-650 m a.s.l. [1] (100-600 m [7], 500–700 m and 900 m [3], above 900 m [4]). It occurs in areas with a uniform rainfall regime with 1,000-1,500 mm/year [1, 6], a dry season of 5-6 months [6]. The mean annual temperature is 20-32ºC [6], the mean maximum temperature of hottest month is about 27-39ºC [6] while the mean minimum temperature of coldest month ranges from 12 to 24ºC [6]. The absolute minimum temperature is >10ºC [6]. A. xylocarpa is a light demanding species but tolerates shade when young. [1, 4, 6, 7]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamoms (A), Northern Cardamoms (B), Tonle Sap Floodplain (C), Redlands (c), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Central Annamites (G). [3]

[Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]:

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Siem Reap (X:420907 Y:1498999), Siem Reap (X:422400 Y:1496105), Siem Reap (X:425135

3

Y:1492386), Kampong Thom (X:556470 Y:1461143), Kampong Thom (X:572874 Y:1397114), Preah Vihear (X:507787 Y:1517235), Kratie (X:623145 Y:1419868), Kratie (X:601979 Y:1431509), Kratie (X:606212 Y:1452676), Kratie (X:621558 Y:1465905), Kratie (X:614679 Y:1442622), Stung Treng (X:571022 Y:1491570), Kratie (X:583722 Y:1425953), Kratie (X:587427 Y:1382032), Kampong Thom (X:528689 Y:1436007), Battambang (X:271513 Y:1423836), Battambang (X:295855 Y:1402670), Ratanak Kiri (X:711945 Y:1539248), Ratanak Kiri (X:710612 Y:1544801), Ratanak Kiri (X:709279 Y:1548799), Ratanak Kiri (X:733268 Y:1516148), Ratanak Kiri (X:734156 Y:1489717), Ratanak Kiri (X:687735 Y:1516148), Battambang (X:254662 Y:1422695), Battambang (X:236107 Y:1421490), Battambang (X:260445 Y:1393055), Battambang (X:250325 Y:1397393), Siem Reap (X:399052 Y:1513164), Ratanak Kiri (X:704001 Y:1504648), Stung Treng (X:641566 Y:1522661), Stung Treng (X:587469 Y:1496461), Ratanak Kiri (X:721623 Y:1515900), Ratanak Kiri (X:704001 Y:1504648), Kampong Thom (X:556986 Y:1403858), Stung Treng (X:661468 Y:1524695), Kampot (X:427602 Y:1215256), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650), Preah Vihear (X:513675 Y:1536861), Mondul Kiri (X:714256 Y:1349031). [3]

M. soil and site conditions : It thrives on well-drained flats or on slopes with a deep, loamy soil, or sand on clayey or laterite soils with a neutral pH. [5, 6, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The hard and durable wood is highly valuable especially in Thailand. The wood is used in various ways, for round wood, building poles, sawn or hewn building timbers, for heavy and light construction, beams, flooring, wall panelling, shingles, engineering structures, bridges, railway sleepers, woodware, industrial and domestic woodware, tool handles, musical instruments, wood carvings, furniture, veneers, boats, vehicle bodies, wood based materials, plywood, fuelwood and charcoal. The wood burls are specially valued because they form beautiful figures when the wood is being cut. The wood is so valuable that it is sold by kilograms. [1, 3 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,13] [Non-wood]: The bark of A. xylocarpa contains the chemical substances catechol and pyrogallol which have tanning properties and are used for tanning hides and skins. The bark is also used in local medicine and veterinary medicine. The fatty cotyledons of young seeds are edible and used for vegetable oil/fat. The seed pulp serves as an adhesive for cigarettes. [4, 6, 7]

[5]. It is nitrogen fixing and suitable in agroforestry and for soil improvement. [1, 5, 6]

O. Cambodian wood classification : Luxury. [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Afzelia xylocarpa is a light demanding tree species that occurs on well-drained flatlands or in transitional zones between dense evergreen and dry open dipterocarp forest in mixed deciduous forests. "The upper canopy layer may reach 30 m or more, a secondary tree layer ranges from 10 to 20 m. Tree canopies are usually closed and the portion of deciduous trees varies, but is above 50 percent. Teak (Tectona grandis) can be the dominant species, increasing the economic importance of these forests" [14]. Other typical species, for example, are Xylia spp., Terminalia spp., Dalbergia oliveri, Pterocarpus macropcarpus, Pentacme spp., Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Tetrameles nudiflora or Lagerstroemia calyculata. It is also found in lowland primary forest. Afzelia occurs in a rather scattered manner and do not usually form pure stands. It has a good coppice potential and fixes nitrogen for soil improvement.

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[Others]: "The tree has been planted in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city zoo-park as an ornamental tree"

4

[Establishment]: Planting is carried out only on a very small scale, mainly for genetic conservation purposes. Planting stock or stumps are normally used for stand establishment. In the first years it is quite shade tolerant. [Management]: A. xylocarpa has good prospects for economic timber production in plantations but the supply is limited and there is need for more research on improvement and management. [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14]

Q. Propagation : Afzelia xylocarpa is propagated by natural regeneration, plantings and vegetatively by air layering, cuttings or grafting. [Seed collection and storage]: The fruits ripen from March to May [3]. Seeds are mature when the pod has turned brown and the seeds are hard and dark colored. Fruits can be collected from the tree by climbing or from covers on the ground after shaking the branches. It can remain on the ground for several months without any damage. After collection the pods are dried in the sun on a tarpaulin until they have all opened. The seeds can be extracted by shaking or beating the fruits in a bag. "It is uncertain whether it is necessary to remove the aril before storage to avoid fungal attacks. If the seed is stored with the aril, it is especially important to make sure the seeds are well dried. Removal of the aril will reduce the bulk with about 25%" [6]. The seeds are orthodox and should be stored at 8-9% [6] moisture content. Generally germination ability lasts 1-2 years [4] when seeds are stored in low temperatures. "From Vietnam it has been reported that at room temperature the seeds can only be expected to store for one year while cold storage at 5-10°C can prolong storage to 2-3 years" [6].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Each kg of seed contains about 110-160 seeds [3].

5

[1, 3, 4, 6] [Nursery]: "The seedcoat of this species is so hard that pretreatment with boiling water may not be sufficient to break the dormancy. Furthermore, the large aril delays germination and must be removed. By using a sharp knife, it is possible to cut off the aril together with a small chip of the seedcoat but care must be taken not to damage the radicle. If the seed coat is not scarified while removing the aril, the seed should be nicked at the opposite end. After cutting, the seeds are soaked in water for 12 hours before sowing" [6].

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: The seeds are susceptible to insect attacks. Known pests include Aristobia spp., Batocera spp. and Rhaphuma motschulskyi ganglbauere [6] [Diseases]: Fungus diseases are caused by Fusarium oxysporum, Phytophthora spp, Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp. [6] [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : High levels of timber exploitation and habitat loss are threatening Afzelia xylocarpa. Large trees are scarce and hard to find. Thus it is in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not implemented. "Within most of its area of distribution, mature trees have been reduced dramatically and sometimes it is very difficult to find them for seed collection" [3]. This tree species is still exposed to intensive logging in Cambodia. Planting is carried out only on a very small scale, mainly for genetic conservation purposes. Therefore this species is considered as endangered (EN A1cd [14]), according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). [1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 14]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Within Cambodia, this species is found in Kampong Thom, Kratie, Stung Treng, Preah Vihear, Siem Reap, Battambang, Ratanakiri, Mondulkiri, Kampot and Pursat. [3]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. [1, 3, 6, 12, 13] [Introduced]:

Guinea and Solomon Islands [6, 12]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Production and international trade]: "The production of wood from A. xylocarpa in Thailand was 25,000 m³ in 1985, 28,000 m³ in 1986, 40,000 m³ in 1987, and 34,000 m³ in 1988. The wood is mostly used domestically to produce furniture and parquetry. The average price of sawn Afzelia timber in Thailand was US$ 430/m³ in 1985 and 1986, increasing to US$ 715/m³ in 1988. Production and trade figures are not available from other countries. Afzelia timber is not important in the trade in South-East Asia except for Thailand" [7].

W. Further readings5 : Choldumrongkul A, Wasuwanich P, 1994. Insect boring of Afzelia xylocarpa Craib seed and its effect on seed germination. In: Proceeding of the Forestry Conference, Surat thani. Thailand: Royal Forest Department, 179-189. [6]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan), Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Papua, New

6

National Academy of Sciences, 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. Tropical legumes: resources for the future., 328pp., [ref. at ends of chapters]. [6]

Nagamura S, Pitpreecha K, Visaratana T, Kiratiprayoon S, Ganpinyo S, Phathong S, 1991. Growth of Afzelia xylocarpa, Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata, Dalbergia cochinchinensis seedlings planted under different relative light intensities created by artificial shading cages. In: Research Activities and Achievements of the Forest Ecology Section, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand, 93-102. [6]

Pitpreecha, K., Kiratiprayoon, S., Ganpinyo, S., Sornsathapornkul, P., 1993. Afzelia xylocarpa. In: Forest tree species planting. Bangkok, Thailand: Royal Forest Department, 144-150. [6]

Piananuruk C, 1994. Cutting position and coppicing ability of Afzelia xylocarpa seedlings. In: Supplementary papers of the National Forest Conference, Surat thani, Thailand, 21-25 November 1994 (Boontawee B, ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Royal Forest Department, 31-35.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6]

7

Smittinand T, 1980. Thai plants (botanical names-vernacular names). Bangkok, Thailand: Royal Forest Department. [6]

Switachart S, 1972. A study on seed germination of Makha Mong (Afzelia xylocarpa) by soaking in different concentrations of sulphuric acid. Technical Bulletin, Royal Forest Department, Thailand, No. R.138:5-10, 3 ref. [6]

X. References: [1] DANIDA, 2002: Seed Leaflet - www.dfsc.dk/pdf/Seedleaflets (Internet source)

[2] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

[3] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[4] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[5] Lehmann L. et al., 2003: Forests and trees of the central Highlands of Xieng Khounang, Lao P.D.R.

[6] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[7] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[8] FAO: The State of Forest Management and Conservation in Cambodia http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

[10] Omaliss, K. and Monyrak, M., 2006: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia

[11] Bertram, A., 2006: Own observations.

[12] Inside wood - http://Inside Wood_A.xylocarpa.htm (Internet source)

[13] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[14] Stibig, H-J. and Beuchle, R., 2003: Forest Cover Map of Continental Southeast Asia at 1:4,000,000. TREES Publications Series D: Thematic outputs no. 4.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C. Nielsen, Albizia gamblei Prain]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C. Nielsen, Albizia gamblei Prain] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C. Nielsen [4,5, 21] Albizia gamblei Prain2

B. English name (s)

³

C. Synonym

³

Albizia lucida Benth., Inga lucidior Steud. (basionym), Mimosa lucida Roxb. Albizia meyeri Ricker, Albizia gamblei Prain [22].

D. Other1

³

eBaF×ebg

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Source: [-]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ pôôh bé:ng [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguminales Family: Mimosaceae Gunus: Albizia Durazz. [17] Species: Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C. Nielsen [4,21]

Source :[5 ; 17]

H. Botanical characteristics : Preliminary remark on the Genus Albizia: It comprises 150 species which occur in Africa, Madagascar, tropical America and Asia. It is found throughout tropical Asia and 20 species are indigenous within the Malesian region. Albizia is frequently planted as a shade tree for various crops like tea or coffee and to improve soil fertility, occasionally as an ornamental tree. Only for the most frequently occurring and traded species are technological and botanical data available [17]. [General]: Large deciduous tree, up to 30-45m high,[4,5] , with dark green crown; [Bark]: Thin, grey, with many lenticels [5].. [Leaves]: 1-2 pairs of side stalks, each with 1-4 pairs of leaflets. 5-10x2-4 cm, rarely to 14x5 cm; top ones largest, narrowed at both ends; completely smooth, dark green and shiny above [5]. [Flower): Small heads of 6-10 flowers gathered into branched clusters at the ends of twigs, 10-40 cm. Side flowers with stalks, 0.5-2.0 mm, calyx 1.5-3.0 mm with shallow teeth; corolla 5-7 mm, stamens about 25 mm; central flower different from others [5]. [Fruit]: 10-30x2.5-3.5 cm, pale yellow or golden brown, very thin, smooth and rather glossy; 2-10 circular dark-brown seeds [5].

I. Wood properties: J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Tropical Asia: Bhutan, India, Nepal, INdochina, Burma, Thailand [21 India and Himalayas, South China, Burma, Indochina, [4], Northern Thailand [5]. A. lucidior occurs in evergreen or deciduous forests [4]. Albizia spp. are usually found scattered or in small groups as a pioneer in open, secondary vegetation or in primary, deciduous or monsoon forest, savanna and scrub vegetation, from sea level up to 1700 m elevation a.s.l. They occur in areas with a seasonal climate, often on sandy soils or otherwise well-drained locations [17].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A.lucidior does not occurabove 1200 m elevation, usually in evergreen or deciduous forests [4].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Several species of Albizia can be planted in rocky and shallow sites with a pronounced dry season of at least 4 months [17].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Temperate Asia: Cina Guangxi and Yunnan Provinces [21];

2

N. Utilization and importance : (Wood]: Used in construction [4], suitable as firewood (17) [Non-Wood]: Shade tree, more noticeable in tea orchards where it is often left standing because of its thin crown and soil improving qualities. Not a common tree and easily missed in the dense upper canopy of evergreen forests, more noticeable in tea (miang) orchards where it is often left because of its thin crown and soil improving qualities [5] A. lucidior is one of the many understorey Albizia trees, of ecological but not of economic significance beyond the local level.

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : Q. Propagation : R. Hazards and protection : not an endangered species

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

S. Conservation :

3

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Asia and Southest Asia, from India to Indochina, native

V. Miscellaneous4 : This species, Albizia lucidior, is one of 118 species indigenous or introduced in Asia; it is not a common tree. [5].

W. Further readings5 : PROSEA 5/3 p.58-60: Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

X. References: 4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

5)

Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest

Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

17)

Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD).

21)

Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN):

http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?313246. Internet source

22)

International Legume Database and Information Service (ILDIS).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?sciname=Albizia+lucidior. Internet source

4

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth

³

East Indian walnut, acacia amarilla, English woman's tongue, fry wood, Indian siris, lebbeck, siris tree, woman's tongue tree [2]

C. Synonym

³

Acacia lebbeck (L.) Willd., Mimosa lebbeck L. [2], Mimosa lebbek Blanco., Mimosa sirissa Roxb. [8]

D. Other1

³

kokko (Trade name) [8] - lebbek (Ethiopia) [8] - daqn el-

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Basha, dign el basha, labakh, laebach, lebbek (Arabia) [8] sirish, sirisha (Bangladesh) [8] - kokko (Myanmar) [8] aninapla, langil (Philippines) [8] - bois noir, bois savane, tcha tcha (France) [8] - siris, sirs, sirisha (India) [8] - kitoke, tarisi, tekik (Indonesia) [8] - batai, batai batu, kungkur, oriang (Malaysia) [8] - kalo siris (Nepal) [8] - acacia chach algarroba de olor, amor plantico, aroma, aroma fracesca, cabellos de gel, faurestina, florestina, lengua de mujer, lengua viperina (Spain) [8] - mkingu (East Africa) [8] - vagai, vagei (Sri Lanka) [8] - ka `sê (Laos) [8] - cha kham, chamchuri, kampu, ka se, khago, phruek, suek (Thailand) [1, 8] - bô kêt tây, h[owj]p hoan, lim xanh, s[os]ng r[aaj]n, trât (Vietnam) [1, 8]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

eRcs Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chrehs [1], chreh [8] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguminosales / Fabales Family: Fabaceae / Mimosaceae [5] Source :[ -]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]:Medium to fast-growing, deciduous tree with a height at maturity of up to 30 m [2] and a DBH of up to 100 cm [2] (maximum). The tree form is fair (in rain forest) to poor (in open pasture) [Bark]: The bark is grey-violet with rusty brown breathing pores, rough and fissured. [Leaves]: The leaves are compound, bipinnate, hairless or slightly hairy on the axis. Leaflets in 2-4 pairs, each with 2-11 smaller pairs of oblong leaflets 15-45 x 8-22 mm, shortly stalked. Hairless glands are raised, elliptical to circular, on the upper side of the stalk close to the base and between most pairs of leaflets. [Flowers]: The flower appears shortly after new leaves, white, heavily scented, with the stamens (=male organ) free above the corolla, in heads 18-36 mm across excluding the stamens, on a stout stalk 5-7.5 cm long, appearing singly or in small clusters in the leaf axils and in terminal panicles. Stamens 30-40, yellowish-green on top side, white underside, up to 5 cm long. Flower-stalks up to 5 mm long. The corolla tube is 1 cm long. Flowers are bisexual (=hermaphroditic). In its natural habitat, flowering occurs from September to October. Flowering (Laos, Vietnam): March to July [4]. Fruiting (Laos, Vietnam): April to August [4]. [Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are of pale-straw to light brown color at maturity, narrow-oblong, 15-26 x 35 cm, papery, leathery, flat and not raised or constricted between seeds. Seeds brown, flat, orbicular or elliptical, 8-10 x 6-7 mm, crosswise placed with 6-12 in each pod. Mature pods remain on the tree for long periods and are available between May-July.

I. Wood properties: The wood is yellow-brown, with a very distinct boundary between heartwood and sapwood. The sapwood is pale, the heartwood is dark brown with black streaks and very decorative. It is moderately heavy and hard, strong and fairly durable, with a specific gravity of 0.5-0.6 g/cm³. The wood seasons well, works and polishes easily. [6, 8]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 31°N to 16°S [5]. A. lebbeck grows in tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa, but was widely introduced and cultivated all over the tropics. A. lebbeck is a dominant species in semideciduous microphyll vine thicket (monsoon forest) on screes of quartz sandstone mountains and on the banks of riverine sites, on stabilized dunes or low lateritic ledges above the beach. It also thrives in broadleaved evergreen forests, coastal plant communities, deciduous forests, moist forests, rain forests and is in general common in open forests.

K. Climate and environmental amplitude :

[3, 4, 5, 8]

This species occurs between 0-1,800 m a.s.l. [8] (0-750 m a.s.l. [4], 0-1,100 m a.s.l.) in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 1,300-1,500 mm [8] (500-2,500 mm [5]) and a very dry winter. Mean annual

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2, 4, 8]

2

temperature: 19-35°C [8] (10-37°C [2]). After the first year it can withstand cold winters and long, hot, dry periods which can be 2 to 6 months long [2] (2-7 months [5]). [2, 4, 5, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (A), Central Lowlands (d), Central Annamites (G). [7] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Stung Treng (X:613356 Y:1530728), Stung Treng (X:597481 Y:1469874), Ratanak Kiri (X:698999 Y:1507507), Ratanak Kiri (X:704310 Y:1548543), Battambang (X:269027 Y:1440093), Preah Vihear (X:474543 Y:1582237), Kampong Thom (X:552057 Y:1410894), Stung Treng (X:662546 Y:1523018), Koh Kong (X:332360 Y:1266062), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300).

[7]

M. soil and site conditions : A. lebbeck grows well on a variety of soils, best on deep, fertile, well-drained loamy soils with a pH of 5.5-7.5, but poorly on heavy clays. Tolerates acidity, alkalinity, heavy and eroded soils and waterlogged soils. Examples of soil types include, shallow sandy soils, laterite and loam laterite. The species occurs on soils overlying basalt and among sandstone boulders and basalt outcrops on breakaway slopes.

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[2, 8]

3

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Used for veneer, roundwood, furniture, posts, sawn or hewn building timber and light construction (flooring, panelling), box containers, industrial and domestic woodware, vehicle bodies, pulp and paper and charcoal. It is also used for making agricultural implements and mine props. A. lebbeck is an excellent fuelwood species with a calorific value of 5,200 kcal/g [8]. [5, 8, 11] [Non-wood]: Albizzia is an excellent fodder tree. "The open canopy allows light penetrations for good grass yields even in low rainfall areas" [2]. "The leaves contain 17-26% crude protein. 100 kg of leaves yield 11-12 kg of digestible protein, and 37 kg of digestible carbohydrates" [8]. The pods contain saponin and are not eaten in large amounts by sheep, although cattle eat them readily. The fragrant flowers are highly regarded by bee-keepers for the light-coloured honey its nectar provides. The trunk yields a reddish gum that is used as an adulterant of gum arabic. The bark is used locally in India for tanning fishing nets (tannin content of 7-11% [8]). Leaves and seeds are used as medicine for eye problems, and the bark to treat boils. Saponin from pods and roots has spermicidal activity.

When dried and pounded, the bark can be used for soap. It is also used for mulches, lac and green manures. [2, 5, 8] [Others]: Erosion control: "Due to its extensive, fairly shallow root system, A. lebbek is a good soil binder and is recommended for eroded lands and erosion control, for example along river embankments" [8]. Shade or shelter: "The species is commonly grown as a shade tree in pastures, tea, coffee and cardamom plantations, and along avenues. It can be planted in exposed coastal situations and as quick-growing shelter for less hardy plants" [8]. Nitrogen fixing: "A. lebbeck is not Rhizobium specific, and native strains are nearly always capable of producing an abundance of nodules" [8]. Soil improver: "The nitrogen-rich leaves are valuable as mulch and green manure. Ornamental: In India A. lebbeck is often planted along roads and in homegardens" [8]. The species is of current socio-economic importance in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) [11].

O. Cambodian wood classification : Luxury [3]

P. Silviculture and management : forests, moist forests, rain forests, open forests and riparian forests. It is a nitrogen-fixing tree which is commonly used as a shade tree in tea-, coffee-, and cardamom plantations. [Establishment]: Typical spacing for fuelwood is 3 x 3 m and 5 x 5 m [8] for timber. Supplementary watering (10 l/plant [5]) may be required during dry periods in the first year after planting. [Management]: It coppices well (height: 1-1.5 m/year; basal diameter: 4-6 cm/year [2]), responds to pollarding, pruning and lopping and will produce root suckers if the roots are exposed. Thinning should be regulary conducted [5]. Regular weeding of plantings is a standard practice [5]. Fuelwood plantations spaced at 3 x 3 m and clear felled on a 10-year rotation produce about 50 m³/ha (= 5 m³/ha/year [5]) of stacked fuelwood. "In Queensland, it reaches about 11 m in height and 50 cm DBH in 30 years. Timber plantations in India clear felled after 25-30 years yield about 10-12 m³/ha per year of timber, but under semi-arid conditions and on shallow soils, a mean increment of 2-3 m³/ha is obtained" [8]. "A.lebbeck is probably not productive as a source of fodder under repeated cutting (more than 2 cuts per year). It does not develop a shrubby habit and is thus not suitable for direct browsing. However, larger trees can be lopped annually with removal of the entire green crown without loss of vigour. [2, 5, 6, 8]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[General]: A. lebbeck occurs in broadleaved evergreen forests, coastal plant communities, deciduous

4

Q. Propagation : Propagation is done by using cuttings, air layering and tissue culture. "It is best established using potted seedlings, although bare-rooted seedlings, direct seeding and stump cuttings have all been used successfully. Seed pretreatment involves scarification and immersion in boiling hot water then cooling and soaking for 24 hours, or acid treatment to break seed-coat dormancy. Germination improves after storage for 2-4 years [8], but satisfactory germination (50-60%) has been obtained from fresh seeds. Freshly collected seed has about 70% germination capacity after 1-2 months. About 880 pods weigh 1 kg [8] and will yield about 300 g of seed" [8]. [5, 8]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Leaf- and bark-feeding caterpillars, sap suckers, wood and seed borers and defoliators such as psyllids can cause damages. In Nigeria, the striped mealy bug, Ferrisia virgata, harms the tree. In Southeast Asia, leaves are largely unaffected by insects. Stand establishment can be adversely affected by grazing of young plants by mice, rabbits and other wildlife. [6, 8] [Diseases]: "Root rot, stem cankers, heart rot, spot fungi and rust can damage the tree." [8] [Others]: The trees are vulnerable to strong winds and are killed by even light fires. Protection from grass or weed competition will enhance the establishment

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[5, 8].

5

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : In Cambodia, it is found in Stung Treng, Ratanakiri, Koh Kong, Battambang, Preah Vihear and Kampong Thom [7]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Australia, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan,

Thailand [2,

8] [Introduced]: Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Barbados, Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, Colombia, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, French Guiana, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mexico, Morocco,

Mozambique, Namibia, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Rwanda, Sao Tome et Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan, Surinam, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Uganda, Uruguay, Venezuela, Virgin Islands (US), Zambia, Zimbabwe [8]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Agroforestry]: A. lebbeck has good flowers for honey production. [2]

W. Further

readings5

: ICRAF. 1992. A selection of useful trees and shrubs for Kenya: Notes on their identification, propagation and management for use by farming and pastoral communities. ICRAF. [8]

MacDicken GK. 1994. Selection and management of nitrogen fixing trees. Winrock International, and Bangkok: FAO. [8]

NFTA. 1988. Albizia lebbeck - A promising fodder tree for semi-arid regions. NFTA 88-03. Waimanalo. [8]

[8]

t Mannetje L, Jones RM. 1992. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 4: Forages. Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen. [8]

Webb DB, Wood PJ, Henman GS. 1984. A guide to species selection for tropical and sub-tropical plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers No. 15, 2nd edition. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford University Press. [8]

Williams R.O & OBE. 1949. The useful and ornamental plants in Zanzibar and Pemba. Zanzibar Protectorate. [8]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S. (eds.). 1998. PROSEA 5(3) Timber trees: lesser known species. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.

6

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand. Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA. [5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM) [6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM) [7] CTSP, Cambodia Tree Seed Project-Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed Sector, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy-Part A: Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources. (CDROM). [8] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source) [9] CTSP, Cambodia Tree Seed Project-Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed Sector, 2003: Gene-Ecological Zonation of Cambodia. (CD-ROM)

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[10] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM)

7

[11] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Albizia myriophylla Benth.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Albizia myriophylla Benth.] A. Latin name

(s)

³

B. English name (s)

³

C. Synonym

³

Albizia myriophylla Benth. [4]

Albizia thorelii Pierre [4], Albizia microphylla J.F. Macbr., Albizia myriophylla Benth. var. foliolosa Baker, Albizia thorelii Pierre, Albizia vialeana Pierre var. thorelii (Pierre)P.H.Ho, Mimosa microphylla Roxb. [23]

D. Other1

³

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

liane sucrée, bois sucré (French)

RtnMGaGUt eQIEGm Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ aèm vör, aém chhë [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Kingdom: Viridiplantae

1

Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguminosales Family: Mimosaceae Gunus: Albizia Durrazz. Species: Albizia myriophylla Benth. Source :[ 4]

H. Botanical characteristics : A shrub, upright or climbing, [4]; a perennial, non-climbing shrub [21].

Except for chemical- medicinal reserachtnis species has found no further interest concerning botanical and technological information.

I. Wood properties:

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : All over Southeast Asia, in evergreen or deciduous forests along rivers and creeks [4]. Albizia spp. are usually found scattered or in small groups as a pioneer in open, secondary vegetation or in primary, deciduous or monsoon forest, savanna and scrub vegetation, from sea level up to 1700 m elevation a.s.l. They occur in areas with a seasonal climate, often on sandy soils or otherwise welldrained locations [17]. In tropical Asia on Indian Subcontinent: India, in Indochina, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia [23].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : tropical climate

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Several species of Albizia can be planted in rocky and shallow sites with a pronounced dry season of

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Availabel wood could be used as fuelwood [17]. [Non-Wood]: The bark is sweet and often used as a condiment for cooking. In commerce a so-called fermentation cake is produced for starting fermentation in the production of rice alcohol. In medicine the fermentation cake is used in the preparation of medication against cough and bronchitis. Pounded or chewed leaves are used to stop bleeding [4]. A. myriophylla is one of the many understorey Albizia trees, of ecological but not of economic significance beyond the local level. In ecent times A. myriophylla has been the subject of intensive chemical and medical research. The results were reported by the Sotheast Asian Journal of tropixcal Medicine and Public Health in 2006 [23].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

at least 4 months. [17]

2

Q. Propagation : R. Hazards and protection :

S. Conservation : not an endangered species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Southeast Asia

V. Miscellaneous4 : A. myriophylla is one of 118 tropical Albizias, 9 of which occur in northern Thailand. They comprise mostly deciduous trees with spreading crowns. Here, A. myriophylla is described as a shrub or climbing tree. Bark]: Smooth bark without thorns. Other common features within the genus Albizia are: [Leaves]: Bi-pinnate with opposite leaflets and raised glands along the stalks. [Flower]: In fluffy heads with many long stamens which are much more obvious than the corolla. The central flower in the head is often very different from the others with much shorter and thicker Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

stamens. Pods straight and flat with thin walls, often swollen over the seeds becoming completely dry

3

and usually splitting open when ripe.[5]

W. Further readings5 : X. References: 4 Di Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

23) National Agricultural Library (NAL)http:77agricola.nal.usda. gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?SearchArg=Albizia+myriophylla

4

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell. [4]

³

cow tamarind, raintree, monkey pod, saman, French tamarind, cow bean tree, saman tree (Engl.) [9,13,27], .

C. Synonym

³

Enterolobium saman Prain ex King, Samanea saman (Jack.) Merr., Inga saman (Jacq.) Willd., Inga salutaris Kunth., Mimosa

saman

Jacq.;

Pithecellobium

saman

(Jacq.

Benth.[4,6,8,12,27].

D. Other1

³

arbre parasol, saman, gouannegoul (French), Regenbaum (German) [4,13]; kam kram, cham cha (Thailand); acacia (Philippines); Sam sa (Laos); còng, me tây (Vietnam) [6,8], algarrobo, carreto negro (Spanish) [26]..

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

1

GMBil)araMg Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ âmpil´ barang´ [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Mimosoideae Gunus: Albizia Durazz. [17] (Samanea Merr.[8] Species: Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell.

Source :[4 ; 11 ; 17]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]:Large deciduous or semi-deciduous tree, up to 30 m high, diameter up to 100 cm, large tree up to 45 (60) m high and 200 cm diameter, very wide, umbrella-shaped crown, up to 30-60 m diameter [6,8,13]. Fast-growing but with the trunk branching out at low height. Stem and branches frequently covered by small epiphytes [13]. Branchlets puberulous to tomentose. Stipules present. [8] [Bark]: Brown to black, developing ridges with age [6]. [Leaves]: Leaves evenly bipinnate, up to 15-30 cm long with 8-12 pinnae. Leaflets are 1.5-6.0 cm long and 0.4-7.0 cm wide, blunt at base and tip, with a minute point at the tip and a short point at the base. Leaflets are larger at apical end of pinnae than at base and number 12-16 in outer pinnae and 6-10 in lower [6]. Leaves: Rhachis 15-40 cm long, with gland(s) just below the junction of the basal pair of pinnae and distally at all other pairs of pinnae, circular, concave, c.(ca.=about) 0.5 mm diameter, pinnae 3-9 pairs, 11 cm long, with gland(s) at the junction of the leaflets. Leaflets opposite, the lowest pair ovate or elliptic, middle pairs rhomboid, terminal pair obliquely obovate, 1.5-2.5 by 3-5 cm, 2-10 pairs per pinnae, base half rounded and half truncate, apex rounded or obtuse, often emarginate or mucronate, main vein diagonal, lateral veins densely reticulate, raised, upper surface glabrous, lower surface densely short-pubescent [8].

[Flowers]: Flowers are numerous, pink, alone or in sub-globose heads from the leaf corners, 5-7 cm in diameter [6 ]. Inflorescence peduncles densely shortly yellowish pubescent, 2-5 together in the distal leaf axils, 5-10 cm long, bearing a terminal corymb. Flowers usually heteromorphic, marginal flowers, c. 3 cm long, pedicellate, central flowers with 7 or 8 perianth segments. Calyx funnel-shaped 5-7 mm long, tomentose or wooly, teeth 5, broadly triangulate, acute, 0.5-1.0 cm long. Corolla red or yellowish-red, funnel-shaped, 10-12 mm long, distal part tomentose or wooly. Lobes triangular ovate, c. 2 mm long. Stamens white at base, purple towards the top, 20-35 mm long, tube shorter than the corolla tube. Ovary sessile, glabrous. Central flower sessile. Calyx 8-9 mm long, broadly tubular, tomentose-wooly, teeth 7-8, 0.5-1.0 mm long, triangular, acute. Corolla c. 12 mm long, tubular, inside glabrous, outside tomentose-wooly. Staminal tube longer than corolla [8]. Flowers small delicate brush-like flower heads, attractive by the numerous white filaments with pink pollen bags.[13] [Fruit]: Pods with fleshy pulp, 12-25 cm long, 2 cm wide with sweet, brown pulp [6].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Leaves bipinnate, oviform, folding up during the night or rainfall [13].

2

Pod strap-like, 15-30 by 1.5-2.3 cm long, straight, indehiscent, outside black when mature, inside transversely septate. Seeds with pleurogram, elliptic, strongly biconvex, c. 8 by 5 by 4 mm, brown, areole elliptic, c. 7 by 3 mm [8]. A ribbed pod, dehiscent, seeds embedded in sweetish pulp [9]. Flowering and fruiting June to January [8]. Flowering March to May and towards the end of the year. Foliage and flowers renewed twice annually [13].

I. Wood properties: Sapwood thin and yellowish, freshly cut heartwood brown, turning golden-brown on exposure. The wood is soft and light-weight and very durable against rot and termites [9]. "The wood of S. saman is strong, durable or very durable, with a specific gravity of 420-640 kg/m³, a light yellow sapwood and rich dark chocolate-brown heartwood. The rich colour and beautiful but subtle grain of the heartwood, resembling black walnut (Juglans nigra), makes wood from larger trees highly prized for furniture making (for example in Malaysia and Trinidad), panelling, decorative veneers, and for turning for bowls, platters, and other handicrafts. In Hawaii and Thailand the wood is used to make the famous, albeit mis-named, 'monkey-pod' bowls. The wood is often very crossgrained, making it difficult to work unless when green." [12] The wood is often turned when green, and this is feasible because the wood shrinks so little on drying that products do not warp [12].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

A. saman originates from the grasslands of Central and northern South America [4,8,13,20], it is

3

widely cultivated and naturalized in Asia, Southeast and East Asia, [6] and Africa [4]; now occuring all over the Asian tropics in India, Burma, Indochina, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia [8]. At least in Central and South America the actual distribution has been much influenced by the introduction of horses and cattle as seed spreaders [12]. A. saman occurs in broadleaved evergreen forests, dry forests, riparian forests, even savanna woodlands and savannas. It is a truly tropical species growing best in the seasonally dry and wet regions, but grows faster where mean annual precipitation exceeds 1,000 mm/ m². Within the limits of the area of distribution it grows in seasonally dry deciduous and semi-deciduous forests as well as moist evergreen woodlands [12]. Geograpical limits are indicated as 15º N-3º N [12].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Sandy coastal areas, along roadsides; up to1300-1500- 1800 m elevation [27,12,8], up to 700 m [6], mean annual temperature 22 ºC, annual rainfall between 600 and 2500(-3000) mm, dry season less than 6 months; light demanding but tolerates a wide range of soils. [6,27] The altitudinal range is given as 0-1500 m, mean annual rainfall 600-3,000 mm/ m², with a bimodal summer rainfall regime. The mean annual temperature range is 20-28ºC, (20-35ºC) the absolute minimum temperature must not drop below 8ºC [12,26].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Sandy coastal areas [8] , tolerates a wide range of soils [6,9] Albizia (Samanea) saman needs welldrained alluvial, fertile, neutral to moderately acid (>pH 4.6) soils for best growth (Franco et al., 1995), but can also tolerate heavy clays (vertisols) and infertile, or seasonally waterlogged soils [12]. Tolerance towards alluvials, cambisols, regosols, vertisols and tropical soils [12].

N. Utilization and importance : In tWood]: Hard and heavy, used in construction, suitable for tool handles, crates and boxes, carving furniture, boats, veneer and plywood [6,8,17]. With its rich dark-and-light pattern, the wood is highly prized for carvings, furniture and panelling. The wood shrinks so little that products may be carved out of green wood without fear of splitting or warping as the wood dries. In Hawaii, bowls and other craft products made from the wood are in such high demand that the local wood supply is supplemented by imports from Indonesia and the Philippines. A moderately durable wood, it is also used in boat building. The beautiful, high-quality wood is used for interior trim, crafts, boxes, veneer, plywood and general construction [20].

reasons. In the humid tropics Albizia saman is also employed as a shade tree for various cultivated plants, e.g., cocoa, coffee, tea or pepper plantations [13]. The fruit forms 20-30 cm long pods with the seeds making a suitable fodder for cattle, pigs and goats [8,13], the reason why in English the tree is also called cow tamarind. Pods, which fall to the ground when ripe, have a crude protein content of 12-18% (dry matter) with 41% digestibility for goats, and are popular with cattle, horses, goats and other animals. Some South American countries have begun exporting the pods. Although the leaves are nutritious, they are not considered an important fodder [20]. Fuel: The facts that A. saman wood produces 5200-5600 kcal/kg when it burns and that it regrows vigorously after lopping or pollarding make it a valuable source of high-quality firewood and charcoal. However, where there is a strong market for wood carvings, the wood is considered too valuable to be used as fuel [20]. Fruit edible, leaves eaten raw in times of scarce food supplies [4] The bark also contains gum and resin [6,20]. In traditional medicine a decoction of the inner bark and fresh leaves is applied as treatment for diarrhoea, while a brew of small sections of the bark is taken to treat stomach-ache. A crude aqueous

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Non-Wood]: Planted as solitary tree or roadside tree, as a shade tree but also for ornamental

4

or alcoholic extract of the leaves is observed to have an inhibiting effect on Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : The characteristic spreading tree form of S. saman with a short bole, extremely heavy branching and a wide, spreading crown mean that it is not adaptable to plantation conditions and has rarely been planted successfully at close spacings (Raintree, 1987; Little and Wadsworth, 1989; Roshetko, 1995) [12]. It is a light-demanding species and generally has a very extensive shallow root system. It is, however, highly compatible with pasture and it is in extensive silvopastoral systems that S. saman fulfils its true potential. It tolerates weeds, is suitable for coppicing and pollarding and is able to fix nitrogen. (Raintree, 1987; Escalante, 1985; 1997; Roshetko, 1995). Planted at wide spacings (10 to 20 trees/ha), it provides shade and dry season fodder [12].

Wide spacings, however, can still be compatible with timber production. Given the preference for heartwood, the demand for large girths and the specialist uses of S. saman wood (which never produces clear sawlogs), wide spacing encourages rapid diameter growth and a thick bole with plenty of heartwood. Branch wood is also often of sufficient diameter to be used. A. saman trees resprout vigorously and can be managed for fuelwood by pollarding in agricultural areas, as in the Philippines

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Raintree, 1987) [20]. If trees are planted at close spacing, e.g. 1.5-2 m x 2 m, they will carry less

5

branches and form a better stem. Under favourable conditions the trees can attain 18cm dbh (diameter at breast height) within 5 years. Mean annual increment is estimated to lie around 25m³/ha. Due to the organic input under the trees the grass does not lose dry in matter content but contains more protein. A. saman coppices well and reacts to pollarding with strong growth so that it can be managed as a source of fuelwood [26].

Q. Propagation : Seeds of A. saman are usually widely available and easily collected. Seed extraction however, requires pounding of the hard dry pods and subsequent winnowing to separate the seeds from pod fragments. There are between 4,400 and 7,700 seeds/kg. Seed requires pretreatment, or scarification, prior to sowing. Hot water pretreatment by pouring boiled water (5 times the volume of seed) over the seeds, soaking for two minutes then draining the hot water and soaking the seed overnight in cold water before sowing is the most widely used method (Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, 1989). Mechanical scarification - by manual nicking (Roshetko, 1997), the hot wire method (Robbins, 1986; Poulsen and Stubsgaard, 1995) or using the seed gun (Poulsen and Stubsgaard, 1995) - are likely to be equally, or more (Roshetko, 1997), effective, though more tedious and time-consuming. Container stock is normally used for successful establishment. Large bags (10 x

20 cm) are used with a potting mixture of 3 parts soil, 1 part sand and 1 part compost. In the first 2-4 weeks seedlings are kept in partial shade. It generally takes 3-5 months to produce seedlings 20-30 cm tall [20]. Propagation is commonly done through potted seedlings, although cuttings and stump cuttings may also be used [20]. Albizia saman has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Trees have been shown to nodulate effectively in Hawaii, Malaysia and the Philippines with a wide range of strains of Rhizobium (reviewed by Allen and Allen, 1981). Seedlings therefore do not require inoculation with specific strains of Rhizobium [20].

R. Hazards and protection : In most places, A. saman is free from pests and diseases. Many defoliators, including the Leucaena leucocephala psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana, attack the tree in various countries, but usually do not cause severe stress problems. Cicadas also feed on A. saman [20]. A number of minor insect pests affect S. saman in different areas, but none of these have, so far caused serious problems. The bean maggot, Hylemya platura [Delia platura] infests cotyledons of S. saman seedlings and may kill them in nurseries in Haiti (Timyan, 1996). In Costa Rica, parrots may harvest up to a third of the expanded green fruits of S. saman (Janzen, 1982) [12]. Insect pests recorded are: Acizzia acaciaebaileyanae, Delia platura, Delia platura, Heteropsylla cubana, Merobruchus columbinus (1), Pammene theristis (2), Psylla acaciabaileyanae (3), Rastrococcus iceryoides (4), Stator limbatus (5)

Fungus diseases: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae (7), Fusarium pallidoroseum (8) Footnotes: 1. damages seeds, 2. in Maharashtra, India, 3. non-preferred name of Acizzia acaciaebaileyanae, 4. In Africa and Asia, this pest attacks cocoa, mango, cotton and A. lebbek as well as A. saman, 5. a bruchid, which damages seeds, 6. nursery seedlings in Cuba were susceptible to damage, 7. causes stem canker and gumnosis in Orissa, India, 8. non-preferred name for F. pallidoroseum [12]. Roots threaten to lift up road and sidewalk cover [9].

S. Conservation : not an endangered species[9]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : in the lowlands

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native of Central and South America, occures in Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, but has been introduced or naturalized in most tropical countries [5], e.g. in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Nematodes: Meloidogyne incognita (6)

6

New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands Tonga, in Africa in Tanzania and Kenya, also in Southeast Asia, in India, Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines etc. [26].

V. Miscellaneous4 : This tree is called raintree because even on dry days it may “rain” below its crown. This rain is caused by a minute cicada, Ptyleus grossus, protecting itself with foam against drought. The insects tap the branches for its liquor and then excrete considerable amounts of water. This may be enough to cause the formation of puddles below the tree [13].

W. Further readings5 : Hensleigh, T.E.& HolawayB.K. 1988: Agroforestry species for the Philippines. AJA Printers, Malabon, 404 pp. Akkasaeng,R, Gutteridge,RC, Wanapat, M,1989: Evaluation of trees and shrubs for forage and fuelwood in northeast Thailand. Int. Tree Crops Journal 5(4): 20-220; 3 ref. Hunter, IR, Stewart, JL ,1993: Foliar nutrient and nutritive content of Central American multipurpose tree species growing at Comayagua, Honduras. Comm. For. Review 72(3): 193-197; 19 ref. MacDicken GK, 1994: Selection and management of nitrogen-fixing trees. Winrock International and FAO Bangkok.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Perry LM 1980: Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia: attributed properties and uses.; MIT

7

Press. South East Asia. Poulsen, KM, Stubsgaard, F 1995: Three methods of mechanical scarification of hardcoated seeds. Tech. Note 27, DANIDA Forest Seed Center, Humlebaek, Denmark Roshetko, JM 1995:Albizia saman: Pasture improvement, shade, timber and more NFT highlites. No. 95-02. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Arkansas; USA. Winrock International Ahn JH, Robertson BM, Elliott R, Gutteridge RC, Ford CW, 1989. Quality assessment of tropical browse legumes: tannin content and protein degradation. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 27(1-2):147-156; 25 ref. Sunand, C., Sharmiastha, D, Bhaduri, SK, Dharmadas, S, 1993: Chemical evaluation of leaf fibre from 4 tropical trees; a social forestry resource. Bioresource Technology 46(3):259-261; 19 ref. Takeda, S, 1990: Lac cultivation and host tree plantations in northern Thailand. South East Asian Studies 28(2): 182-205; BIDC Taylor DH and MacDicken KG 1990: Research on multipurpose treespecies in Asia. Proceedings Int.Workshop, November 19-23, 1990, Los Banos Thole, NS, Joshi, AL, Rangnekar, DV 1992: Nutritive evaluation of raintree (Samanea saman) pods. Ind. J. of Animal Sciences 62(3): 270-272; 6 ref.

Chicco CF, Garbati ST, Muller-Haye B, 1973. A note on the use of saman fruit (Pithecellobium saman) in pig food rations. Agronomia Tropical (Maracay, Venezuela), 23: 263-267.

X. References: 4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

6)

Jensen, M. 2001: Trees and Fruit of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,

Bangkok; 224 pp.

8)

Sam, H. V., Nanthavong, Kh. and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field

guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. , Nat. Herbar. Nederlande, Univ. Leiden, Branch. Leiden The Netherlands, 349 pp.

9)

Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide

Thames & Hudson Ltd.,London. 484 pp. 11)

Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York;

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

13)

BAERTELS, A. 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical

Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart,Germany, illustrated, 384 pp.

17)

Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

336 pp.

8

26)

World Agroforestry Centre: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Oroducts/AFDbases/AF/asp/

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

BotanicList.asp? (Internet source).

9

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Anacardium occidentale L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Anacardium occidentale L.] ³

Anacardium occidentale L.

B. English name (s)

³

cashew [1] , cashew nut [2]

C. Synonym

³

A. Latin name

(s)

Cassuvium pomiferum [4], Acajuba occidentalis Gaertn. [7]

D. Other1

³

cajou, anacardier, acajou, cachou, pomme de cajou

(France) [1, 2] - jambu monyet, jambu mede

(Indonesia) [1] - gajus, jambu monyet (Malaysia) [1] - kasoy, balubad, balogo, kasui (Philippines) [1, 2] - thiho thayet si (Myanmar) [1] - mamuang himmaphan, yaruang, mamuang letlor (Thailand) [1] - [dd][af]o l[ooj]n h[ooj]t, [dd]i[eef]u, cay dieu, dao lon hot (Vietnam) [1, 2] - anacardo, casa, maranjon,

merci,

pajuil

(Spain)

[2]

-

kazu

badam

(Bangladesh) [2] - yao kuo (China) [2] - andipapuppa, andiparuppu, balia, bojan, gera-bija, gerybija, godambe, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

hijali-badam, hijuli, jidi-mamidi, jidivate, kaju, kashu-mavu,

1

kempu geru bija, lanka-ambo, mindiri, mundri, munthamamidi (India) [2] - kashu nattsu (Japan) [2] - caju, kaju, montinkai (Sri Lanka) [2]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

sVaycnÞI Source: [9]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ svaay chantii [1, 11], chanty, kchov [3] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae

Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Anacardiaceae Genus: Anacardium Species Anacardium occidentale L. Source :[ 2]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small to medium-sized, evergreen shrub or tree with a height of up to 12 m [1] (6-15 m [2], 4-10 m [4], 2-8 m [14], 0-6 m [12]). Bole is 0.5-1.5 m short [1], stout and crooked with a DBH of 25 cm [2] (30-45 cm [13]) and has few irregularly orientated branches usually near the base, giving a spreading appearance. Bark resinous, light grey or brown, smooth in the young stages but becoming rough with abundant warts with age. The middle part of the bark has a tinge of brown with red sticky and caustic fibers. Taproots are up to 3 m deep [1], persistent. Lateral roots are spreading beyond the crown projection, with sinker roots to a depth of 6 m [1]. Crown dome-shaped, wide, early branched and densely foliated. The leaves are commonly crowded at the ends of the branches. [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, simple, thick and leathery, hairless, opposite egg-shaped or oblong, often notched at the apex, purplish-green or red-brown when young, later shining dark green

prominent midrib and veins, lateral veins pinnately spreading with 10-20 [2] bow-like pairs. The leaf stalk is short (1-2 cm [2]), swollen at the base and flattened on the upper surface. [Flowers]: The inflorescence is polygamous with ca. 60 hermaphrodite and 10 male flowers [8]. "The inflorescence is a slightly branched lax terminal, drooping, many-flowered panicle, with the branches at 90° to the axis" [8]. It is up to 25 cm long with fragrant male and hermaphrodite flowers. Flowers are small, regular, sweet-scented, white to light green at flower growth, later turning to pinkish-red. The size of flowers varies from 1-2 mm for male and 6-12 mm for hermaphrodite flowers [2]. The structure of both types of flowers is similar except that the female organ is either absent or rudimentary in the staminate flowers. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are green spear-shaped to oblong, 4-15 mm x 1-2 mm [8] and hairy. The 5 inner flower-leaves (petals) are linear, spear-shaped, 7-13 mm x 1-1.5 (2) mm [2, 8], reflexed in open flowers, pale greenish-cream with red strips at the time of flower growth and later turning to red. There are 10 stamens (=male organs). The male flowers have 7-9 short (2-3 mm [2], 4 mm [8]) and 1-3 long (6-9 mm [2], 6-10 mm [8]) stamens, the female or hermaphrodite flowers have 9 short and 1 long stamen projecting just above corolla [2]. Flower buds and fully open flowers may be found in the same tree. In general, flowering normally occurs at the beginning of the dry period and varies with latitude (Flowering season SE-Asia: January-May [12]). The flowers are pollinated by insects (honey bees, flies, possibly also ants). Both cross- and self-pollination occur, but there is evidence of some self-incompatibility. The fruiting starts in April [12].

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with entire margin and hairless. The leaf blade is 6-24 x 4-15 cm [2] (6-25 cm × 5-15 cm [8]) with

2

[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is a kidney-shaped nut, about 3 x 1.2 cm [1] (3-5 x 2-3.5 cm [2], 2-3 x 1 cm [4], 2-3 x 1.5-2.5 cm [8]), with a greyish green to grey-brown, resinous hard fruit coat. The fruit is embedded in an enlarged and swollen flower stalk called a cashew apple (false fruit), which is pearshaped, 10-20 cm x 4-8 cm [1], waxy, red to yellow, soft and juicy. Seed kidney-shaped with reddishbrown seed coat, two large white cotyledons and a small embryo. The kernel remaining after removal of the testa is the cashew nut of commerce. [1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is reddish brown, light and hard but crooked. "The timber has an unusual feature, in that wood density and fiber length decrease with tree age" [2]. [5, 13]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 27°N to 28°S [2] (20°N to 24°S. [5]). Cashew's high adaptability is characterized by its omnipresence in diverse latitudes. As a naturalized exotic it occurs in dry forests, dunes, grasslands, savanna woodlands, savannas, coastal plant communities and is also found growing wild in other situations. Cashew is a well-known backyard tree in South-East Asia. [1, 2, 5, 12]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Cashew grows well from 0-1,200 m a.s.l. [2, 8] (0-1,000 m [5, 7] but is best suited to lower altitudes.

3

Normally an altitude of 600 m a.s.l. [5, 13] is the limit for commercial cashew cultivation. It tolerates both uni- and bimodal rainfall regimes but the latter one is more appreciated. The distribution of rainfall within the rainy season is more important than quantity. However it can be grown in arid, semiarid and humid climates with annual rainfall range of 500-3,500 mm/yr [7] (500-3,700 mm [2], 5004,000 mm [5], 800-1,500 mm [8], 1,200-2,200 mm [13]). Heavy rains and cloudy weather during flowering adversely affect nut yield. A dry season length of 3-5 months [8] (4-5 months [5], 4-6 months [2]) is needed for a good flower flushing, fruit- and root development. It can also adapt to very dry conditions as long as the root system has access to soil moisture. Cashew requires high temperatures, the optimal temperature for growth is 22-26ºC [8]. It thrives in areas with a mean annual temperature of 22-35ºC [2] (17-38 ºC [7]), a mean maximum temperature of 35-48ºC [2] in the hottest month and a mean minimum temperature of 16-24ºC [2] in the coldest month. The absolute minimum temperature is above 0ºC [2] because cashew is susceptible to frost damage [8, 15]. Other sources mention cashew as a very frost resistant species [1]. A. occidentale is a strongly lightdemanding species and readily colonizes open ground. It does not tolerate excessive shade. However it tolerates strong winds and termites. [1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Cashew can adapt itself to varying soil conditions, from the sandy sea coast to laterite hill slopes, even soils which are too stony or too dry for other crops. It also grows well in soils which are very poor in nutrients. However, it prefers shallow, fertile, well-drained to dry, bare sandy soils, hard laterite soils and deep red loamy soils or soils rich in organic matter. The species can bear heavy, waterlogged clay soils or saline soils but with an extreme poor growth. Brackish soils near seashores and inundated or swampy soils are not suited. It prefers slightly acidic to neutral (pH 6.3-7.3 [2]) soil conditions. "In drier areas (annual rainfall 800-1,000 mm), a deep and well drained soil without impermeable layers is essential. A simple water budget with the aid of pan evaporation figures will show the required soil depth." [1]. Suitable soils for growth include: ferrallitic, lateritic, rocky soils, coastal sandy soils, luvisols, fluvisols and red soils. [1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: A. occidentale is not really a timber species due to its low-quality timber. Unless trees are old or uneconomical for nut production, they are not felled for timber or fuelwood purposes. However it produces wood that can be used for round wood, sawn or hewn building timbers, light construction, house- and shed posts, fencing poles and even for building boats. It produces excellent fuelwood and

[1, 2, 5, 13] [Non-Wood]: Food: The nutritious kernel (=cashew nut) is the main economic product of the species, the world trade in cashew ranks third after almond and hazelnut. The nut is highly regarded as food, usually roasted. Cashew nuts are also used as snack foods, in confectionery and baked products. They are often marketed in cans of mixed nuts. Cashew apple is a good source of vitamin C, and can be eaten fresh or mixed in fruit salad or squeezed to make fresh juice. In Cambodia the cashew apple is eaten fresh with salt. Also the young leaves, buds and shoots are eaten raw in salads or cooked, especially in time of shortage. The juice of cashew apple is slightly fermented and distilled to make strong alcoholic drinks in Brazil, Guatemala, India and Mozambique. Oil: The nut contains a high quality oil and the cake remaining after extraction serves as an animal feed. However, due to the current high price of the kernels the oil is not usually extracted. By-products of the nut collection are seed-coats which can be used as poultry feed and shells which are utilized as a source of fuel and yield cashew nut shell liquid oil (CNSL). CNSL is used as a waterproofing agent and a preservative e.g. to treat wooden structures and fishing nets and in the manufacture of numerous industrial products. Distilled and polymerized the oil is used in insulating varnishes and in

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

charcoal. The wood pulp is used to fabricate corrugated and hardboard boxes or crates.

4

the manufacture of typewriter rolls, oil- and acid proof cements and tiles, brake linings, inks, etc.. CNSL has also been used to produce several pesticides, dyes and drugs. Medicine: All parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine to treat wounds, toothache, dysentery, scurvy, sores, warts, ringworm and psoriasis. "The leaves contain flavonoids, mainly glycosides of quercetin, kaempferol and hydroxybenzoic acid. The bark contains anacardic acid, anacardol, cardol and ginkol. The caustic liquid in the shell contains about 39% anacardic acid, which is a mixture of alkyl salicyclic acid derivates. The bark and leaves are used as an infusion for tooth aches and sore gums. The infusion may also be used as a febrifuge in malaria. Anacardic acid is bactericidal against Staphylococcus aureus as well as being fungicidal. Extracts of the leaves have reportedly shown to be hypotensive in rats. Infusion of the dried leaves have reputed anti-hyperglycaenic and antiulcerative properties" [4]. The fruit sap is used as a medicine for leucoderma. Fruit and kernel can also be used as an antidote against skin diseases and leprosy. Tannins and dyes: The bark is used in the tanning industry, and the resinous sap from the bark yields an indelible ink. The wounded bark exudes a yellow gum which has insecticidal properties and can be used as an adhesive (woodwork panels, plywood, bookbinding). [1, 2, 4, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15] [Others]: In Cambodia's past Cashew was rather cultivated as an ornamental than as a fruit tree. It is also grown as a shade tree, as a hedge and for dune stabilization. It is also suitable for shelterbelts and windbreaks, for afforestation of barren, slash-and-burned farmland and coastal saline sandy lands and for the rehabilitation of degraded lands.

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[2, 8, 14]

5

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [6]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: A. occidentale occurs in dry forests, dunes, grasslands, savanna woodlands, savannas, coastal plant communities and is also found growing wild in other situations. As a well-known agroforestry species it is often intercropped with coconut, citrus, banana, cassava and maize. Cashew is a multipurpose species suitable for shelterbelts and windbreaks, for afforestation of barren, slashand-burned farmland and coastal saline sandy lands and for the rehabilitation of degraded lands. The tree is easily cultivated, vigorous and requires little care. It is a strongly light-demanding and does not tolerate excessive shade. It coppices easily. [Establishment]: A.occidentale can be planted in the full sun. In general planting holes are 30 x 30 cm [2] in size. On heavy or compact soils planting holes should be 50 x 50 x 50 cm [5] in size and refilled with a soil-manure mix. Two or three seeds are planted per hole at a depth of 5-8 cm [2]. After germination only one seedling is retained. For initial spacing 3.4 x 3.4 to 5 x 5 m [5] (6 x 6 m to 10 x 10 m [2]) is recommended to suppress weeds and maintain soil moisture. The seedling emerges 3

weeks after sowing. The root grows fast, maintaining a depth of 1.5 times the height of the shoot [1]. The shoots grow in flushes that follow the onset of the rainy season. The seedling stem soon branches and pruning may be needed to attain a trunk height of 0.5-1.5 m [1]. Fertilizer application is not a common practice. The juvenile phase lasts only 3 or 4 years. [Management]: To ensure a uniform stand, moisture should be stored (e.g. by mulching, terracing, half-moon basin making), soil aeration should be improved by soil tillage, root penetration should be eased by digging appropriate pits. Careful weeding - cleaning the area within 1 m of the trunk and slashing the remainder - is essential until the trees shade out most of the weeds. "Weed control and erosion prevention can be done by cover cropping (using legumes like Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopogonium mucunoids, Mucana sp., Mimosa invisa etc.)" [5]. The wider spacing allows mixed- or intercropping making this species ideal for agroforestry systems, esp. hedgerow systems. Fertilizers promote growth of the seedlings and advance the onset of flowering in young trees, however it is not necessary where only nuts are harvested. "Since A. occidentale has a low-spreading branching habit, at about 2 years old trees may be pruned to form a strong scaffold, which removes dead, unproductive and diseased branches. Trees are shaped by removing the lower branches and any shoots arising from the base of the tree during the first 3 years. Thereafter little or no pruning is necessary" [2]. After 5 years thinning is required to reduce competition. In closely spaced plantations, thinning may be carried out to obtain 120 trees/ha [2] (44-69 trees/ha [1]). Final spacing varies from 8 x 8 to 20 x 20 m [5] (12 x 12 to 15 x 15 m). "Spacing experiments have shown that at ten years of age productivity in plots with 44, 69, 111, 135 and 278 trees/ha was about 450 kg/ha. The larger tree size compensated for smaller numbers of trees. Thus, only the canopy surface area determines

per ha and increase the yield over the first 10 years. The optimum width of the interrows depends on climatic conditions and on planting material" [1]. The growth and development is relatively fast and trees normally start bearing fruits from the 4th year. Trees reach maximum production at about age 10 years [2], and maximum productive rates can continue for a further 20 years [2] (25 years [1]). "Replanting is costly and leads to loss of income for at least five years. Thus, cashew raising in hedgerows is a good alternative. The resulting high productivity can be maintained by coppicing alternate rows at 50-75 cm when adjacent hedges come within 1 m distance of each other. Tree rows may also be grubbed out and replaced with superior selections. The replanted rows come into production after 5 years. However, during that time the remaining hedges can expand fully and reach top yields. When the gap between hedges again becomes less than 1 m the rows of unchecked trees should be cut back, giving room for expansion of the rejuvenated/replanted rows. This system allows continuous cropping at higher than normal productivity and gradually improving yield levels" [1]. After the tree starts bearing, it is important to apply fertilizers and spray against pests and diseases. [Harvest]: Harvest is seasonal and lasts 2-3 months [1]. Best quality is attained where freshly fallen nuts are dried and stored immediately. Nuts should be gathered at least weekly. The area under the tree should be weed-free and swept clean to facilitate nut collection. After removal of the cashew apple the nuts are sun-dried to reduce moisture from 25% to below 9% [1]. With proper drying, the kernel retains its quality, in particular the flavour. The nuts should not absorb moisture during storage.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

productivity. Hedged rows of trees planted at 2-3 m x 12-15 m almost double the canopy surface area

6

The equilibrium moisture content is about 9% at 27ºC and a relative humidity of 70% [1]. The cashew apples ripen before the raw nuts are mature. Ripe apples for fresh use should be picked almost daily. [Yield]: Yields of seedling trees are low in South-East Asia, usually in the range of 400-600 kg/ha/year [1], the global average is slightly higher with 670-1,350 kg/ha/year [2]. "Average yields per tree increase from 3 kg at ages 3-5, to 4 kg at ages 6-10, 4.7 kg at ages 11-15 and 5.3 kg from the 16th20th year" [1]. Farmers in southern Myanmar reported a productivity at 6.1 kg/tree [1]. In general a mature tree can yield 45-100 kg [2] of cashew apple and 9-8 kg [2] (some trees up to 45 kg [2]) of nuts annually. [1, 2, 5, 7, 12]

Q. Propagation : Natural regeneration occurs when animals such as bats eat the cashew apple and scatter the nut. A. occidentale is also a fairly good coppicer and also produces root suckers, therefore natural regeneration may also occur vegetatively by coppice shoots and root suckers. However coppicing can not be duplicated on a huge field scale. For commercial production cashew is propagated by seed. Nuts are collected from heavily and regularly bearing trees with known parentage. Only fully mature, medium-sized nuts of good shape with a high specific gravity are used. It is also a common practice to select only those seeds which do not float in water or do not give a rattling sound. They give a higher germination percentage and rate of growth. Seeds are collected during April and May [10]. Seeds with a low moisture content are viable for 12 months [10] if stored in air tight containers. After 14 months the seeds completely loose their viability. The number of viable seeds per kilogram varies from 120 to

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

250/kg [2] (120-125/kg [5], 150-200/kg [10]). Purity percent: 100% [10]. Moisture percentage: 6.5%

7

[10]. Germination percentage: 80-90% [10]. Plant percent: 50% [10]. No. of seedlings per kg of seed: 150 [10]. Pretreatment is not required. Seeds are sown in polybags with the stalk end facing upwards and in a slanting position. Three to four kg of seeds/ha are needed for a layout of 7 x 7 m [4]. "Germination starts in about 10-30 days [2] (10-20 days[10]) and is completed within 2 months. As trees propagated by seed vary considerably in growth rate, yield and quality due to outcrossing, vegetative propagation can be used to produce planting materials from selected mother trees or superior phenotypes. Techniques used include split- and wounded cuttings, air- and ground-layering (most successful method), patch and forked budding (about 30% take), veneer, side, whip, cleft and tip grafting" [2]. "Recently the first successes with propagation through tissue culture have been obtained at Gembloux, Belgium" [1]. [1, 2, 5, 7, 10]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: The Helopeltis bug or tea mosquito (Helopeltis antonii) is a major pest and causes severe damage to tender shoots and inflorescences, leading to drying up of the inflorescences and shedding of fruits. This can cause a severe economic loss. It can be controlled by contact insecticides. "Application of endosulfan and dimethoate at the time of emergence of new flushes and panicles has been suggested. However, because A. occidentale is insect pollinated, extensive use of pesticides is not recommended. Resistant accessions have been observed in India"[2]. Similarly other pests may

be locally destructive, e g. wood borers, stem girdlers or sucking pests such as thrips. Other pests include Acrocercops syngramma, Conopomorpha syngramma Meyrick, Crimissa cruralis, Hypatima haligramma Meyrick, Lamida moncusalis Walker, Nephopetryx sp., Metanastria hyrtaca Cramer, Monolepta longitarsus Jac., Oligonychus mangiferus Ratman, Paradasynus rostratus Distant, Plocaederus ferrugineus,

Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna, Selenothrips rubrocinctus and

Thylocoptila panrosema Meyrick. [1, 2]. [Diseases]: Under hot and humid conditions anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) attacks young shoots and flowers, which dry up and are shed. Infections of the fruits also cause necrosis and shedding. This disease is often associated with insects and/or other fungi. Control is done by removing and burning infected parts and selection of resistant material, the use of fungicides is generally uneconomic. Another disease is powdery mildew (Oidium anacardii) which occurs in plantations, esp. with humid environment and densely planted trees. Affected plant parts become covered with white fungal growth. Leaves and flowers may shrivel, dry up and be shed. It can be controlled by sulphur. Other fungi like Capnodium sp. (Sooty Mould), Corticium salmonicolor, Cylindrocladium scoparium (Seedling Blight), Diplodia natalensis Evans. (Gummosis), Glomerella cingulata, Gloeosporium mangiferae P. Henn., Oidium anacardii (Powdery Mildew), Phomosis anacardii, Phytium ultimum Tron. (Seedling Root Rot), Pestalotia paconiae Servazzi (Leaf Spots), Pestalotia dichatae (Leaf Spots), Phytophthora palmivora (Damping off) have been recorded.

S. Conservation : [In-Situ Conservation]: "Field gene banks are maintained in Brazil (130 accessions), India (the NRCC maintain 213 accessions, with 600 accessions in other parts of India), Mozambique (530 clones), Thailand (744 cashew types) and the Philippines with 1,300 cashew accessions" [2].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Cashew is cultivated extensively throughout the regions of Cambodia as a commercial product. [4]

It is especially found in Phnom Penh, Mondulkiri, Rattanakiri, Kp. Thom, Kp. Cham, Kandal, Svay Rieng, Kp. Saom, Battambang, Siem Reap, Pursat, Prey Veng. [16]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Brazil [Introduced]:Asia (Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam), Africa (Angola, Benin, British Indian Ocean Territory, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo Democratic Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia),

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[1, 2, 5]

8

Caribbean (Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago), Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama), North America (Mexico), South America (Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela) Oceania (Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea) [1, 2, 5, 11]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [History]: It was one of the first fruit trees from the New World to be widely distributed throughout the tropics by the Portuguese and Spanish. [15] [Nutrients]: "With a production of 420 kg of raw nuts per ha, 13 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of P2O5 and 3 kg of K2O are removed." [1] [Nut properties]: The seed contains 21% protein and between 35 and 45% oil. [2] [Nut-processing in Asia]: "The small-scale production in South-East Asia is suited to manual processing, often followed by sorting and packaging procedures in central plants." [1] [Pollination and seed dispersal]: "Is pollinated primarily by honey bees (Apis mellifera). Ants and flies of the genera Ligyra and Helophilus also visit the flowers. Wind may also disperse pollen, although it plays little part in pollination. It is a self-compatible species with a high level of outcrossing. However,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

pollination is ineffective with pollen collected from staminoid flowers. A. occidentale produces floral,

9

panicle and leaf nectaries. Fruit-set under natural conditions ranges from 5 to 10%. In India, pollination was not efficient and fruit-set has been increased by artificial pollination, whereas in Tanzania, pollination and fruit-setting are efficient and do not normally limit yield. Seed dispersal occurs through water (seashores, by ocean currents), by large fruit-eating birds (for example, toucans, Ramphastidae) or by fruit bats such as Epomophorus wahlbergi." [2]

W. Further readings5 : Aiyadura SG, Premanad PP. 1965. Can cashew become a more remunerable plantation crop? India Cashew Journal. 4(1):2-7. [7]

Food and Agriculture Organization, 1982. Fruit-bearing forest trees: technical notes. FAO Forestry Paper, No. 34:v + 177 pp. [2]

French JH, Tingsabadh C, Taylor D, Byrnes F, Pan FJ, Wood H, Chung HH, Kamis Awang, Lasco RD, Bhumibhamon S, Latimer W, 1994. Growing multipurpose trees on small farms. Growing multipurpose trees on small farms., Ed. 2:li + 315 pp.; 69 ref.

[2]

Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text]. [2]

Johnson DV, 1973. The botany, origin, and spread of the cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. Journal of Plantation Crops, 1:1-7. [2]

Nayak MG, 1996. Training and pruning practices for cashew. Cashew, 10(2):5-9; [3 pl.]. [2]

Ohler JG, 1979. Cashew. Communication, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, No. 71:260 pp. [2]

Northwood PJ. 1966. Some observations on flowering and fruit setting in the cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Trop. Agriculture, Trin. 43(1).

Verheij E.W.M. Coronel R.E. (1991) PROSEA - Plant Resources of South-East Asia; 2 - Edible fruits and nuts. [8]

Villachica H. Carvalho J. E. U. de. Müller C. H. Camilo Diaz, S. Almanza M. (1996) Promising Amazonian Fruits and Vegetables. [8]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[3] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM).

[4] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[7]

10

[5] Mandal, R.C., 2000: Cashew - Production and Processing Technology.

[6] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source).

[8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=401&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source)

[9] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species.

[10] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture (Internet source).

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[11] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe/spd?spd=352&tx=PL&sub=0 (Internet source).

11

[12] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/Individual.php?id=447 (Internet source)

[13] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[14] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[15] Purseglove, J-W., 1968: Tropical Crops - Dicotyledonae 1. London. 332 pp.

[16] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Anisoptera costata Korth.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Anisoptera costata Korth.] ³

Anisoptera costata Korth

B. English name (s)

³

No information available.

C. Synonym

³

Anisoptera cochinchinensis Pierre (1886), Anisoptera

A. Latin name

(s)

marginatoides Heim (1902), Anisoptera mindanensis Foxw. (1918) [1], Anisoptera oblonga Dyer, Anisoptera cochinchinensis Pierre, Anisoptera robusta Pierre, Anisoptera glabra Pierre, Shorea nervosa Kurz. [4]

D. Other1

³

mai bak, mersawa (Trade Name) [12] - mersawa kesat (Brunei) [1] - masegar, mersawa daun lebar, ketimpun (Indonesia) [1] - mersawa kesat, mersawa terbak, pengiran kesat (Malaysia) [1] - Mindanao palosapis, balingan (Philippines) [1] - kaban-thangyin (Myanmar) [1] - bak, maiz bak (Laos) [1] - krabak, krabak khok, krabak daeng (Thailand) [1] - v[ee]n v[ee]n, v[ee]n v[ee]n tr[aws]ng, v[ee]n

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

v[ee]n xanh (Vietnam) [1]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

epþók Source: [8]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phdiek, phdiek krâham, phdiek sâ [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Gunus: Anisoptera Korth. Species: Anisoptera costata Korth.

Source :[ 1,4]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A large to very large tree up to 50 (-65) m tall [1] (-20 m [10], 30-40 m [12]). Bole cylindrical, straight, branchless for up to 35 m and with a DBH up to 150 cm [1] (100 cm [10], 170 cm [5], 200 cm [2], 50-80 cm [12]). Few buttresses of up to 4 m high, thick, rounded, straight and spreading out up to 2.5 m, continuing up the bole as ribs up to 10 m high [5] ; (no buttresses are present [2]). Branches thick, flat or angular and densely yellow stellate hairy. [Bark]: The bark is greyish brown to light yellow, smooth and hairless when young, deeply fissured when old and shedding off into small rectangular patches. Inner bark leathery and lamellated, up to 3 cm [5] (1-2 cm [12]) thick, with a cream yellow to brown yellow color. [Leaves]: The leaves are single, alternate, leathery with a dull yellowish or greenish lepidote beneath. Leaf shape elliptical to opposite egg-shaped, 6-20 x 3-11 cm [5] (6-18 cm x 7-11 cm [1], 10-15 x 5-8 cm [2]). Apex with a short blunt point, base rounded or nearly heart-shaped, hairless on upper surface, star-shaped hairs on the lower surface, venation pinnate, secondary veins 15-20 pairs [5] (822 pairs [1]), intramarginal vein present. [Flowers]: The inflorescence is conical, axillary or terminal, 10-15 cm long, with star-shaped hairs. Flower cream colored. Outer flower-leaves 5, hairy, lobes triangular. Inner flower-leaves 5, blunt, narrow elliptic. Stamens (male organs) 25-35 [5] (30-35 [2]). Ovary (female organ) cylindrical, 2-

December-March [12]). [Fruits]: Fruiting from February to May [5] (April-May [2]). Fruit globular, brown, 1-1.5 cm in diameter, with two large wings 10-12 x 1.5-2 cm [2] (10-16 x 1-1.5 cm [5]) and three short wings 1.5-2.5 x 0.20.5 cm . [1, 2, 5, 10]

I. Wood properties: Medium weight hardwood with a white yellow color and indistinctive sapwood and heartwood. [12]. However other sources describe the sapwood and heartwood as very distinctive, with a pale yellowish white sapwood and a pale yellow heartwood having a fine texture [1, 2]. Annual rings are not clear cut, usually 5-7 mm wide. Resin conducted tubes and simple vessels are scattered. The wood-resin is soft at first, then becomes hard, grey and strongly smelling. Wood density of 0.46-0.85 g/cm³ [1] at 15% moisture content. The specific density of dry wood is 0.64 g/cm³ [2] (0.61-0.71 g/cm³ [12]). Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.49, fiber situation point 28%. Pressure strength along the grain 504 kg/cm². Static bending strength 1,150 kg/cm². Splitting strength 17.5 kg/cm. Collision bending strength 1.17. The wood is easy to saw, but makes the saw blunt because of its high content of calcium-oxate crystals in the heartwood. [1, 2, 5, 12]

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locular (2 ovules = immature seed). Flowering from November to March [5] (February-March [2],

2

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: From 15°N southwards. Occurs in moist tropical evergreen rain forests, semievergreen and dry evergreen forests of the lowlands. In natural forest it grows together with species like Diperocarpus alatus, D.kerri, D. jourdanii, Hopea odorata, Hopea ferrea, Shorea spp., Lagerstroemia spp., Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Afzelia xylocarpa and Peltophorum ferrugincum. Occasionally it is also associated with bamboos. A. costata always occupies ecologically dominant storey or predominant storey in the layered structure. Sometimes it grows gregariously in pure stands. [1, 2, 5, 7, 11, 12]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Occurs up to an altitude of 700 m a.s.l. in humid areas with a mean annual rainfall of 1,500-2,200 mm and an average annual humidity of 75-85%. The mean annual temperature is 25-27°C. The dry season can last for 4-6 months. [1, 2, 11]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : It is suitable to degraded grey soil or yellowish brown soil on old alluvium or basalt tuff which can be

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

low in nutrients. It occurs from coastal to hillside areas, by streams, and lowland disturbed areas.

3

Water logging is not tolerated. Soil where it is distributed is usually poor in nutrients. It can also be found gregariously in dry seasonal areas, where the trees can be shortly deciduous and relatively small in size. [2, 11]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood (traded as 'mersawa') is of high commercial value and suitable for veneer, plywood, furniture, flooring, interior finish, ship planking, general construction, telefone posts, wooden tanks and tight cooperage. [1, 2, 5, 10, 12] [Non-wood]: The nut is edible. [11] [Others]: Shade and shelter-tree. Potential tree for soil- and water conservation and amenity. This species is of current socio-economic importance in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000). [9]

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class. [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: A. costata occurs naturally in moist tropical evergreen rain forests, semi-evergreen and dry evergreen forests of the lowlands which can contain a considerable amount of deciduous tree species (20-50%) forming forests that are usually 25-30 m tall, with closed canopies and a lower tree stratum of 5-17 m in height. In natural forest it grows together with species like Diperocarpus alatus, D.kerri, D. jourdanii, Hopea odorata, H. ferrea, Shorea spp., Lagerstroemia spp., Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Afzelia xylocarpa and Peltophorum ferrugincum. Occasionally it is also associated with bamboos. A. costata always occupies ecologically dominant storey or predominant storey in the layered structure. Sometimes it grows gregariously in pure stands. [2, 5, 7,11] [Establishment]: For stand establishment it is advisable to plant this species on grey soil generated on old alluvium or basalt tuff or in secondary forest soil still covered by forest vegetation. Pure plantations can be raised under the crowns of Indigofera teysmanii at 600 trees/ha density (3-6 m) or can be planted mixed in 15-20 m wide rows with Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata. At an early stage of the plantation it needs a slight shading, thus Indigofera teysmanii of Hopea odorata are suitably used as support species. Planting is conducted during the first rains of the rainy season (June-July in Vietnam). [Management]: Tending should be carried out in 7 consecutive years. In the first to third year mainly before and the other after the rainy season). In the 4th-5th year: Shoots thinning, stem shaping. In the th

th

6 -7 year: Canopy opening, adjustment of density (final density is 300 trees/ha). There must be fire control in the dry season. [2]

Q. Propagation : The species flowers and fruits very irregularly (once every 3-4 years). Thus seeds must be stored and seedlings must be maintained for annual forest planting plans. After collection the seeds must be treated an sown directly because they loose their germinability quickly. Seeds are sown in seedbeds and then planted in P.E. pots (20 x 25 cm) (pot mixture consists of surface layer soil (80%) and decomposed farmyard manure (20%). Seedlings are planted when they have attained a mean height of 0.6-0.8 m and are 12-14 months old. [2]

R. Hazards and protection : No information available.

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weeding, heaping soil to tree base, breaking the hard pan and cutting of climbers (twice a year, one

4

S. Conservation : A. costata is a rare and threatened tree species according to the IUCN -1994 EN-category. The estimated number of individuals threatened by logging in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) are >10,000 [9]. [6, 9, 10]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : No information available.

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia (Sumatra, W-Java, Borneo), Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (S-Vietnam). [1, 2, 5, 10]

[Introduced]: No information available.

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Forest Genetics]: "A. costata is a very variable species which possibly hybridizes with A. curtisii" [1].

W. Further readings5 : Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

5

Masano, A.H., 1988. Perkecambahan benih Anisoptera costata Korth. [Seed germination of Anisoptera costata Korth.]. Buletin Penelitian Hutan 498: 11-21. [1]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CDROM).

[2] JICA, 2003: Use of indigenous tree species in reforestation in Vietnam.

[3] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[4] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[5] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[6] Keo Omaliss and Meng Monyrak: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia: Status, Issues and Prospects

[7] Stibig, H-J. and Beuchle, R., 2003: Forest Cover Map of Continental Southeast Asia at 1:4,000,000. TREES Publications Series D: Thematic outputs no. 4.

[8] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species.

[9] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

[10] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgibin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=1869852&spd=5062&tx=PL (Internet source)

[12] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[13] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

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[11] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Anisoptera.htm (Internet source)

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Annona muricata L]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Annona muricata L] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Annona muricata L. [4]

B. English name (s)

³

soursop, custard apple, [4,9]

C. Synonym

³

Annona bondplaniana Kunth ; Annona cearaensis Barb. Rodr.; Annona macrocarpa Werkl.; Guanabanus muricata (L.) Gomez. [26]

D. Other1

³

guayabano, soursop (Engl.) anone, cachiman épineux, corossol, corosselier, (French); tiëp bânla, tiep barang (Cambodia); sirsak, nangka belanda, nangka seberng (Indonesia); khan thalot, khièp thét (Laos); durian belanda, durian benggala, durina makkah (Malaysia); duyin awza (Burma); guayabano, atti (Philippines); thurian thet, rian nam, thurian khaek (Thailand); mang câu xiêm (Vietnam) [6,26].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

eTob)araMg

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tiëp barang, tiëp bânla [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Magnoliales Family: Annonaceae [4] Gunus: Annona Species: Annona muricata L. [4]

Source :[ 4 ; 6 ]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A tree , 5-9 m high, branching from near base [6]. A tree up to 7 m high [9]. Slender, evergreen tree, 5-10m high, diameter up to 15 cm.; trunk straight [26]. [Bark]: Smooth, dull grey or grey brown, rough and fissured with age; inner bark pinkish and tasteless; branches at first ascending with the crown, forming an inverted cone, later spreading; crown at maturity spherical due to lack of apical dominance; twigs brown or grey, bearing minute, raised lenticels; root system extensive and superficial, spreading beyond the diameter of the crown, although shallow rooted. Juvenile plants have a taproot that is eventually lost [26]. [Leaves]: Alternate, short stalked, oblong-ovate, entire, 7-20 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, pointed at both ends, dark green and shiny above, yellowish-green below, badly smelling when crushed [6]. Leaves aromatic, rich, green, laurel-like, growing compactly [9]. Leaves alternate, 7.6-15.2 cm long, 2.5-7.6 cm wide, leathery, obovate to elliptic,glossy on top, glabrous on underside, simple, stipules absent; blade oblanceolate, green on top, paler and dull on underside with 3-10 mm long fine, lateral nerves; exuding a strong, pungent odour; petioles short [26]. [Flowers]: Large, yellowish-green, strong smelling, 1 or 2 together; flower stalk with short dense hairs [6]. Flowers cauliflorous, forming on trunk and branches; with 3 triangular, fleshy petals which fall immediately after pollination. Flowers have an unpleasant smell attracting flies and other insects, the main pollinators [9]. Flower terminal or lateral, large; stalks stout, green, 1.3-1.9 cm long; 3 sepals, minute, inconspicuous, broad, green, 3mm long, triangular; petals yellowish-green, 6 in 2 whorls of 3, outer petals larger, ovate-acute, valvate, cordate with pointed apex (heart-shaped), 4-5 x 3.4 cm, 3 mm thick and fleshy, fitting together at edges in bud, rough on the outside; 3 inner petals, narrow,

stamens numerous, shield-shaped, united below; anthers parallel and opening longitiudinallly; carpels numerous, overtopping the stamens, each with 1 ovule; pistils white, narrow, 5 mm long, with sticky stigmata [26]. [Fruit]: Tender with leathery skin and soft, curved spines. Flesh whitish, very juicy with hard, darkbrown seeds [6]. Fruit a syncarp, a multiple fruit composed of many united pistils, each ending in a fleshy spine which grows from the old style. Each of the white, fleshy, sweetly aromatic segments contains a single, black, shiny seed. The large, thin-skinned fruit has a light or bright green colour, heart- or kidney-shaped, up to 3 kg in weight, up to 35 cm long [9]. Fruit 14-40 x 10-18 cm, weighing up to 7 kg, ovoid, heart-shaped, an oblong syncarp composed of numerous united pistils; pistils end in fleshy spine or short base of spine, 1.5 mm or more in length which grows from the style, often asymetric due to incomplete fertilization of the ovules. Epidermis often shining, dark green with short fleshy spines covering each carpel; pulp white, fibrous and juicy; seeds shiny, dark, brown or black, oblong, up to 2 cm long, 0.7 cm wide [26].

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smaller, 3.8 cm long, thinner, rounded, concave with fingernail-shaped base and overlapping edges;

2

I. Wood properties: The wood makes suitable firewood. The soft, whitish wood is sometimes used for construction applications. Sapwood is whitish and heartwood brown. The wood is soft, light (specific gravity of 400kg/m³), not durable; it is rarely used as construction timber but has been used for ox yokes [26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : A. muricata is thought to be a native of tropical America, including the West Indies, although its origin is not definitely known. It is now widely distributed in lowlands of the tropics [6]. Cultivated today in the tropical and subtropical Americas, in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Australia, with the geographical limits approximately at 23º N and 25º S [12]. A. muricata thrives in the humid tropical and subtropical lowlands. It is common on the coast and is found on slopes. Planted for its fruit, it has become wild or naturalized in thickets, pastures and along roads [26].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A. muricata grows in tropical climates below 1000 m a.s.l. with a minimum of 1000 mm/m² of annual rainfall; however, it tolerates up to 6 months of drought [6]. A. muricata will grow between 0-1000 m elevation a.s.l., annual precipitation ranging from 1000 to 2500 mm/m², mean annual temperature from 18ºC-25ºC, t minimum >5ºC [12]. The species is commonly cultivated in home gardens and is found in rural garden areas on volcanic and raised limestone islands where it is occasionally naturalized. Trees are not found on atolls. They withstand very little frost. A. muricata occurs throughout the West Indies except in the Bahamas, and from Mexico to Brazil [26].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

3

not determined

M. soil and site conditions : A. muricata does not tolerate water-logging but needs well drained, not too acid soil (6), high tolerance to alkaline soils of light texture, otherwise tolerant [9,12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Can be used as fuelwood [17]. [Non-Wood]: Annona muricata is a fruit tree; the ripe fruit is eaten fresh or made into juice, preserve, jam or jelly. A. muricata is the only Annona fruit that can be processed into preserves. It is high in vitamins B and C and and is an important fruit in Southeast Asian cooking where the unripe fruit is prepared in coconut milk. A. muricata can be consumed fresh for dessert when fully ripe or mixed with ice cream or milk to make a delicious drink, as is done in Java and in Cuba and other parts of America. However, more often the puree is consumed after squeezing the pulp through a sieve. It can be made into fruit jelly, juice (with sugar added), nectar or syrup. In Indonesia a sweetcake (‘dodol sisrak’) is made by boiling A. muricata pulp in water and adding sugar until the mixture hardens. In the

Philippines, young fruits with seeds that are still soft are used as a vegetable. Mature but firm fruits may be made into candy of delicate flavour and aroma. A. muricata fruit consists of about 67.5% edible pulp, 20% peel, 8.5% seeds and 4% core by weight. Sugars constitute about 68% of the total solids. The fruit is a good source of vitamins B (0.07 mg/100g) and C (20 mg/100 g) and a poor to fair source of calcium and phosphorus. The most desirable characteristics of the fruit are its extremely pleasing fragrance and flavour [26]. In traditional medicine many applications have developed: The crushed leaves are applied to mature boils and abscesses or are used as a remedy for distention and dyspepsia, scabies and skin diseases, rheumatism, coughs and colds. The leaves may also be used to make a decoction, which is taken orally with salt for digestive tract ailments and to relieve fatigue. A crushed leaf and seed decoction is taken orally for intestinal malaise. A massage of the leaves is good for nervous shock, while a leaf or bark decoction is used for anxiety attacks. Flower or flower bud tea is mixed with honey for colds, chest pain and nerve disorders, and the bark and young fruits, which contain tannin, are used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. The green bark is rubbed on wounds to stop bleeding [26].

A. muricata is an early bearing tree suitable for intercropping between larger fruit trees like mango or avocado. When these achieve crown closure the Annonas can be removed. So far the yield is on the average low and seldom exceeds 12 to 24 fruit per tree. However, a 35 year-old plantation in Hawaii has shown that the mean number of fruit /tree can be much higher, e.g. 33, 34, and 70 fruit/tree during the years 4,5,and 6, respectively [12].

The pungent leaves are said to be sleep-inducing [9]; fruit pulp and leaves are used to treat diarrhoea, fever and scurvy [9]. Green fruit, leaves and and seeds are said to have insecticidal properties, the seeds are considered to be poisonous for humans [9]. Annonaceae comprise a large number of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs. Species of genus Rollinia have only local importance but from the genus Annona, A. muricata L., soursop, and A. reticulata L., the bullock´s heart are particularly grown in Central America and the West Indies. Until now the 2 species of commercial importance are A. cherimola Mill., cherimoya, and A. squamosa L., the custard apple, and the crosses between these, called the atemoyas. Cherimoya originates from the highlands of Peru and Ecuador and grows only in tropical highlands and in the subtropics. Cherimoya sold in Europe originates mostly from Spain and Israel [19].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included [18]

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Leaves and roots are used in traditional medicine [6].

4

P. Silviculture and management : Seeds may be sown directly into the field or in a nursery bed. Within 20-30 days 85-90% of the seeds should germinate, and seedlings can be planted out after 6-8 months. Spacing in orchards should be 3 x 4 m to 4 x 6 m [26]. Commercial plantations in Brazil were a failure. It is not clear whether the reasons were low yield, or limited storage potential. There are reports concerning inadequate pollination and subsequent low yields. But also customers complained over the large amount of seeds. Evidently more and coordinated research on higher yields and less numerous seeds is needed [12]. Stand establishment possible by using direct sowing, but better with planting stock [12]. The area around the base of the tree should be kept free from weeds or covered with mulch to avoid dehydration of the shallow roots during the dry season. Annona muricata can tolerate dry soil conditions, but the trees shed too many leaves if they experience prolonged drought, and in that situation they would benefit from supplementary watering. Moderate application of fertilizer and manure increases fruit production. This is necessary during the early stages of growth so as to increase the slow growth rate. Trees usually assume a satisfactory form, but in some cases it is necessary to limit the tree to a single trunk by cutting out competing twigs as early as possible [26].

Q. Propagation : Flowers are protandrous, and the pollen is shed as the outer petals open towards the evening. The inner petals open much later and only very slightly, admitting small insects attracted by the fragrance of the flowers. Beetles of several species are important in carrying out natural pollination. Presumably these insects effect cross-pollination, though rather inadequately, for few flowers set fruit and many fruits are misshapen since numerous ovules are not fertilized. Hand pollination is effective in Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

improving fruit yield and quality. Fruiting starts in the 2nd year, and 5-year-old trees produce 10-50

5

fruits, depending on pollination efficiency and nutrient status. Sporadic flowering and fruiting can occur all year round in favourable conditions [26]. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox, and the seeds tolerate desiccation to 5%. Long-term storage under ideal conditions is possible [26]. The tree can be propagated clonally, in particular through various budding and grafting techniques on seedling stock, as is the practice in parts of America. Only the most productive trees should be selected for propagation; they should be planted 5 m apart. However, A. muricata is commonly raised from seed. Seedlings are acceptable because populations are fairly uniform -seeds of the sweet type, for instance, are generally true to type -and because the juvenile phase lasts only 2-4 years. Seeds may be sown directly into the field or in a nursery bed [26].

R. Hazards and protection : A. muricata trees are susceptible to seed borers which drill holes from outside into the seeds in the fruit, killing it that way. Other noxious insects are scale insects and mealy bugs [9]. Caterpillars (Diacotrichia, Pingasa and Pseudoterpna) attack the flowers and young leaves [26].Insect pests include Bephata maculicollis, Ceconata annonella, Talponia backeri, Thecla ortygnus, scale insects and Mediterranean fruit fly. The trunk borer Cratasomus spp. is a serious pest, as are many fruit

borers in the orders Coleoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. Mousebirds also attack the tree. In the Caribbean region A. muricata is attacked heavily by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and, in the Manaus, Brazil, region by Pellicularia spp. [26].

S. Conservation : Not a threatenend species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : In private house gardens and small fruit orchards

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Tropical Central America and West Indian Islands native, Southeast Asia introduced [26]

V. Miscellaneous4 : Seeds considered poisonous for humans and an eye irritant [9]. Powder of dried leaves and sap from fresh ones are useful in destroying vermin. A powder or oil from the seeds has been used to kill lice and bedbugs. All tree parts have insecticidal properties and can be used, with fruit as bait, to kill fish [26].

W. Further readings5 : Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia. No.2, Edible fruits and nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen, 446 pp.

Granadino CA, Cave RD 1994: Inventory of arthropods and pathogenic fungi Annona in 4 localities of Honduras. Turrialba 44(3): 129-139; 5 ref. Chan, YK 1992: Breeding and varietal improvement of tropical fruits at MARDI. Acta Horticulturae No. 321:138-151; 12 ref. Williams, L.O. 1981: The Useful Plants of Central America. Ceiba 24(1-4):1-381. Fouque,A. 1976: Espèces Fruitières d´Amérique Tropicale. Institut Franais de Recherches Fruitières Outre-Mer, Paris. Carbajal D, Casaco A, Arruzazabala L, González R, Fuentes V, 1991. Pharmacological screening of plant decoctions commonly used in Cuban folk medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 33(1-2):2124; 7 ref.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Trinh Thuong Mai, 1995: Fruit trees in Vietnam. Chronica Horticultura 35(3): 8-9; 3 pl.

6

X. References: 4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6)

Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp?

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Internet source)

7

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Annona squamosa L]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Annona squamosa L] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Annona squamosa L. [4]

B. English name (s)

³

sweetsop, custard apple, sugar apple [4,6,9]

C. Synonym

³

Annona biflora Moç & Sessé, Annona cinerea Dunhal., Annona forskahlii DC. [26].

D. Other1

³

pomme cannelle, achiman cannelle, attier (French); chirimoya, anona (Spanish); tiep baay, tiep srok (Cambodia); sirkaja, sarikaja, atis (Indonesia); khieb (Laos); non sari kaya, buah nona, sri kaya (Malaysia); awza (Burma); atis (Philippines); noina, mak khiap, lanang (Thailand); na mang câu ta, na (Vietnam) [4,6,9,26].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

1

eTobRsuk eTob)ay Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tiëp ba:y, tiëp srôk [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Magnoliales Family: Annonaceae Gunus: Annona Species: Annona squamosa L. Source :[ 4 ; 11 ]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Shrub or small tree, 3-6 m high [6]; small deciduous tree, young branches densely pubescent [12]. A small semi-deciduous tree, 3-7 m high, with broad, open crown or irregularly spreading branches [26]. [Bark]: Bark light brown with visible leaf scars, smoothly to slightly fissured into plates; inner bark light yellow and slightly bitter. Twigs become brown with light brown dots (lenticels) [26]. [Leaves]: Oblong to narrow elliptic, 7-17 cm long, 3.5-5.0 cm wide, slightly hairy or smooth beneath [6]. Leaves alternate, ovate-oblong or elliptic oblong, thin, sparsely downy, dark green above, 8-15 cm long, 2-5 cm wide. Pubescent when young with peculiar smell when crushed. Petiole 1.0-1.5 cm long [12]. Leaves occur singly, 6-17 x 3-6 cm, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, pale green on both surfaces, and glabrate or nearly so; sides sometimes slightly unequal, edges without teeth, inconspicuously hairy at least when young, minutely dotted on examination with a lens; thin dull green to dark green on top surface, and pale blue-green and covered with bloom on underside; apex short or long pointed, base short pointed or rounded; petioles 0.6-1.3 cm long green, slightly pubescent [26[. [Flowers): In groups of 2-4 or sometimes alone, on slender stalks on young branchlets. Outer 3 petals oblong to 2.5 cm long, green with purple base whereas inner 3 petals are reduced or absent [6]. Small pendulous flowers singly or in pairs, in the leaf axils of young shoots or opposite leaves. Pedicel 1.52.5 cm, hairy. The 3 sepals are short, deciduous, densely or thinly pubescent, 0.2-0.3 cm long. The 6 petals are biseriate, the 3 outer petals are lanceolate, thick, fleshy, trigonous, finely pubescent,

petals alternate the outer ones and are minute, sometimes absent, ovate and never more than 0.5-1.0 cm long. The stamens are numerous, yellowish-white in many rows in the glabrous, raised receptacle (torus) 0.12-0.15 cm long and crowded in a whorl around the gynoecium. The pistils are also numerous, dark violet, finely pubescent, found above the stamens. The stigmas are sessile, stuck together and deciduous. The stamens and pistils form a cone-shaped structure at the center of the flower [12]. Flowers greenish-yellow, fragrant, on slender, hairy stalks, produced singly or in short lateral clusters about 2.5 cm long, 2-4 flowers, but not at the base of the leaves; sepals pointed, hairy, green, about 1.6 cm long; 3 outer petals oblong, thick, and rounded at the tips, fleshy, 1.6-2.5 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, yellow green, slightly hairy, inside light yellow, and keeled with a purplish or reddish spot at the thin, enlarged base; inner petals 3, minute, ovate, pointed scales; stamens very numerous, crowded, white, less than16 mm long; ovary light green, styles white, crowded on the raised axis [26]. [Fruit]: The fruit is a syncarp formed by the fusion of numerous ovaries. It is irregularly heart-shaped about 5-20 cm in diameter. The ripe fruit is yellowish green or purple. The flesh is white, soft, juicy, with a mild agreeable flavour. The numerous seeds are obovoid or elliptic, dark brown or black, shiny, slightly compressed, 1.0-1.5 cm long, 0.5-0.8 cm wide, each enclosed in the edible pulp [12].

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yellowish-green on the outside, yellowish-white inside, 2.0-2.5 cm long, 0.5-1.0 cm wide. The 3 inner

2

Fruit globose, 5-10 cm in diameter, greenish-yellow with powdery surface [6]. Fruit globose, with eggshaped soft scales, and grey-green skin, rapidly turning black when only slightly pressed. The flesh is creamy, yellowish-white and tastes aromatic and sweet [13]. The aggregated fruit, formed from the numerous pistils of a flower which are loosely united, is soft and distinct from other species of the genus. Each pistil forms a separate tubercle, mostly 1.3-1.9 cm long and 0.6-1.3 cm wide [26]. The fruit is round, heart-shaped, ovate or conical, 5-10 cm in diameter, with many round protuberances; greenish-yellow when ripe, with a white powdery bloom. The pulp is white, edible and sweetly aromatic; in each carpel is a seed embedded, oblong, shiny and smooth, blackish or dark-brown, 1.31,6 cm long, numerous [26]. Commercial hybrids with A. cherimola are called atemoya or custard apple [6](the name custard apple is in contradiction to [19] which states that this name applies solely to A. squamosa)

I. Wood properties: The light yellow sapwood and brownish heartwood are soft, light in weight and weak [12,26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Originates from tropical America and West Indian Islands, reached India, spread over Southeast Asia, now distributed world-wide in lowland tropics especially in Asia and the South Pacific. Geographically the limits of the area of distribution are given as 16ºN -18º S. A. squamosa is native of tropical America and the West Indies, but its original home is uncertain [26].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Grows in tropical climates, generally below 1,000 m elevation a.s.l., with minimum annual precipitation Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

of 1,000 mm/m² [6]. The following conditions have been specified: Elevation 0-1200 m a.s.l., 750-4500

3

mm/m² annual precipitation, rainfall bimodal, dry season of 2-5 months, mean annual temperature 2932ºC, minimum t of >18ºC [12]. Like many other fruit trees young plants need shade but later require full sunlight. Trees do well in hot and relatively dry climates such as those of the low-lying interior plains of many tropical countries. A. squamosa has the reputation, particularly in India, of being a hardy, drought-resistant crop. This is only partly correct. Although the rest period and leaf fall enable the tree to bridge a severe dry season, it requires adequate moisture during the growing season, responding well to supplementary irrigation. The importance of moisture is shown by the fact that in India as well as Southeast Asia, fruit set is largely limited to the onset of the rains, not withstanding the prolonged flowering season [26].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : A.squamosa is xerophytic and tolerates prolonged drought but it does not like water-logging, requires well-drained [6], but no too acid soils [9]. It makes generally low demands on soil and water. Soil properties required are good drainage, sandy or silty loams, clays. Best yields were obtained from

sandy loams, or soils which are slightly acidic in the range of pH 5.5-6.5 [19,26]. The root system is relatively shallow, so that it does not require very deep soil. In India, A. squamosa predominantly inhabits hillocks, gravelly soils and waste land [12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Dead trees or broken branches can serve as fuelwood [17,20]. The light yellow sapwood and brownish heartwood is soft, light in weight and weak, but the main reason for being rarely used is the lack of a regular supply of wood with usable dimensions [26]. [Non-Wood]: A. squamosa is distributed throughout the tropics and is in first place a desert fruit. The largest volume of fruit produced is eaten fresh, only a small portion is used as a flavouring or for producing nectar [6]. Custard apple, A.squamosa, is the commercially most important Annona species. It is commercially grown in Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines, but also in other countries, China or India, where large quantities are taken to local markets. In India the greater part of the harvest originates from wild trees [19]. The pulp can be used as a flavouring in ice cream. Between 50-80% of the fruit is edible. The vitamin C content is appreciable (35-42 mg/100 g) and slightly higher than in grapefruit. The nutrient value of thiamine, potassium and dietary fibre is also significant [26]. Applications in traditional medicine comprise macerated bark in rice alcohol for treatment of diarhoea; crushed leaves mixed with water taken to treat malaria(20 leaves per adult, 10 leaves for a child) [4]. Leaves, shoots, bark and roots have been reported to have medicinal properties. The unripe fruit is

reported to have medicinal properties. Green fruits, seeds and leaves have effective vermicidal and insecticidal properties [20]. A. squamosa can be planted as a shade or shelter tree as well as an ornamental, the attractive tree is grown in gardens. The trees are grown as intercrop with mango, banana and coffee trees [26].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : In Australia and other regions A.squamosa is grafted onto A. glabra stock to avoid insect attacks. However, A. glabra has become invasive in Northeast Queensland where it is forming pure thickets [9]. Trees are planted 5-6 m apart or 10-12 m when grown with mango trees. This slow-growing tree must be protected from browsing animals. If well looked after, it will start producing fruit after about 2 years. Regular watering and weeding are required for good fruit production. Soil needs to be fertilized generously for better fruit yield. Commercial fertilizer containing 3% nitrogen, 10% phosphoric acid and 10% potash is recommended. A mature tree, 5 m high, produces several dozen fruits in a

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

astringent, and the root is a drastic purgative [12,20]. Leaves, shoots, bark and roots have been

4

season. Biological control and chemicals including malathion and dimethoate acephate are used to control pests. Trees are sprayed with bordeaux, fermate, phygon, and zerlate to control anthracnose disease [26].

Q. Propagation : Seed storage behaviour is orthodox. If kept dry, seeds retain their viability for several years. No loss in viability occurs during 6 months hermetic storage at -20ºC and 1.5% m.c., but loss in viability occurs if seeds are stored at room temperature [26]. A.squamosa can be directly sown. Freshly harvested seeds are collected from mother trees, washed in tap water, air dried and sown into seed boxes, 1 cm deep , 2-3 cm apart, with planting soil composed of 2 parts of fine sand and 1 part of garden soil. Germination of 90-95% can be achieved, setting in after 20 days. When 4-6 pairs of leaves have fully grown transplanting can be done, where the leaves are cut in half to reduce transpiration and the tip of the main root is cut to encourage formation of side roots. Propagation with cuttings was not so successful [12].

R. Hazards and protection : Seed borers , which are a common problem of A.squamosa, and mealy bugs are the dominating insect pests. Larvae of the moth Anonaepestis bengalella are boring into the wood, the root grub of Anomal sp..and 2 mealy bugs, Ferrisia virgata, and Planococcus lilacinus cause damge but can be contained with insectides. Furthermore two fungi affect inflorescences and leaves but can equally be

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

controlled with fungicides and by burning affected branches and stems [12].

5

The most common pests of A. squamosa are mealy bugs (Planococcus spp.), fruit flies (Dacus spp.), spotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) and scales (Parasaissetia spp.). All these can be controlled in an integrated pest management programme. In the Philippines, a fruit-boring moth (Annonaepestis bengalella) is the most destructive insect. Another serious pest is a eurytomid wasp whose larvae bore into the fruits.Insect pests include Bephata maculicollis, Ceconata annonella, Talponia backeri, Thecla ortygnus, scale insects and Mediterranean fruit fly. The trunk borer Cratasomus spp. is a serious pest, as are many fruit borers in the orders Coleoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. Mousebirds also attack the tree. In the Caribbean region A. muricata is attacked heavily by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and, in the Manaus, Brazil, region by Pellicularia spp. The trees are susceptible to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and are attacked by Aleurocanthus woglumi. The major root rot disease is bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum). Symptoms are collar rot, dark internal discoloration of the root and the wood tissue, tree decline and eventual death. Chemical control of the disease is not possible. A. squamosa rootstocks are highly susceptible. The major fruit diseases are black canker (Phomopsis spp.), diplodia rot (Botryodiplodia spp.) and purple blotch (Phyphthora spp.). The incidence of these fruit diseases increases under moist or wet conditions. They can all be controlled by a regular spray programme using either mancozeb or copper oxychloride [26].

S. Conservation : Not a threateneed species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : In house gardens and small fruit orchards

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Central America, West Indies, Mexico, native; introduced to Australia, China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand [26].

V. Miscellaneous4 : As with Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit , also A. muricata and A. squamosa are difficult to store and transport due to their weight and soft skin. Ripe fruit is highly sensitive to damage and spoils rapidly.

W. Further readings5 : Hensleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.K. (Eds.) 1988: Agroforestry Species for the Philippines. US Peace Corps, Manila, Philippines. Purseglove, J.W. 1974: Tropical Crops-Dicotyledons. Longman, Essex, England Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia. No.2, Edible fruits and nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen, 446 pp.

London Joy, C. 1987: Selected European Markets for Specialty and Tropical Fruit and Vegetables.G 201, Trop.Devel. Res. Inst., London Broughton, W.J. and Tan, G. 1979: Storage conditions and ripening of the custard apple Annona squamosa L.. Sciencia Hortic. 10:73-82. Hocking,D. 1993: Trees for Drylands. Trees for drylands. xiii+370 pp. Oxford and IHB Publishing, New Delhi Filipino Farm 1954: How to plant santol, atis, soursop and tamarind. Filip. Farm 1(7):17 Verkataratanam L, Satyanaranaswamy G, 1956. Studies on genetic variability in Annona squamosa. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 15:228-238. Little EL, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agricultural Handbook. No. 249. US Department of Agriculture. Washington DC. Mbuya LP et al. 1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania: Identification, Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Joughin, J.1986: The Market for Processed Tropical Fruit. G 196. Trop. Devel. Res. Inst.

6

Popenoe W. 1974. Manual of the tropical and subtropical fruits. The Macmillann Company. Smith JHN et. al. 1992. Tropical forests and their crops. Cornell University Press. Viñas RC, 1972. Atis (Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae). In: Cultural directions for Philippine Agricultural Crops. Vol. 1 (Fruits). Manila, Philippines: Public Affairs Office Press, Bur. Plant Indus, 31-36.

X. References: 4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6) pp.

Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

7

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte .]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte .] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte

³

agarwood, aloeswood, eaglewood, Indian aloewood [2], argar wood, aloe wood [3]

C. Synonym

³

Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. [1], Aquilaria malaccensis Lam., Agallochum malaccense (Lam.) Kuntze, Aquilaria agallocha

Roxb.,

Aquilaria

ovata

Cav.,

Aquilariella

malaccensis (Lam.) Tiegh. [2], Aquilaria crassna Pierre [3], Aloexylum agallochum Lour., Aquilaria secundaria DC. [7]

D. Other1

³

bois d' aigle, bois d'aloès (France) [11] - ketsana (Laos) [1] - tram, tram huong, do do bau [1], kanankoh [2] (Vietnam) - agor (Bangladesh) [2] - alambac, tengkaras, alim, halim, karek (Indonesia) [2] - agaru, sasi (India) [2] - akyaw (Myanmar) [2] - gaharu, karas, calambac, tengkaras,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

calambac, tengkaras (Malaysia) [2]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

c½nÞRksña Source: [12]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chan crassna, changkrassna, chankrosna [3], daem chan kroessnäa [6]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Thymelaeales Family: Thymelaeaceae

Genus: Aquilaria Species: Aquilaria crassna Source :[ 2]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium-sized to large, evergreen tree with a general height of 15-20 m [3] but sometimes up to 30 m [1] (-40 m [2]). Stem straight with a DBH of up to 40-50 cm [3] ( -60 cm [7], -100 cm [1]). Crown thin with nearly horizontal branches. [Bark]: Bark brownish grey, shallowly fissured and flaking in thin strips. Inner bark pale yellow, wet with much water and with patches of fragrant, dark colored resin in old trees. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple, spirally and alternate arranged with oval shape, 5-11 x 3-6 cm, base broadly wedge-shaped, margin entire but often wavy, apex acuminate or acute. Upper surface glossy and dark green or purple green, shining, lower surface light colored and hairless. Veins in 15-20 pairs, more conspicuous beneath, veins and veinlets slender. Leaf-stalks 3-7 mm, hairy. [Flowers]: Inflorescence umbellate, axillary or terminal. Flowers small and fragrant, yellowish green [1] (snow-white [7], pale blue-yellow [9]). Flower stalks (=pedicles) 5-6 mm, densely yellow grey hairy. Outer flower leaves (=sepals) in a tube, narrowly bell shaped, 5-6 mm, densely hairy on both sides, lobes 5, egg-shaped. Inner flower leaves (=petals) 10, scale like, inserted on the throat of the outer flower leaves, densely hairy. Stamens (=male organs) 10 in two rows, filaments 1 mm long, anthers short, stigma head-like. Trees begin to flower at an age of 6-8 years from April to June [1] (MarchApril [3]). Fruiting from July to September [1] (June-July [3]. [Fruits] The fruits (=capsule) are green and egg-shaped, 3 x 4 cm in size [9] (2-4 x 2-3 cm [1], 3.5-5 cm wide [7]), hard when dry, with short greyish yellow hair. The outer flower-leaves (=sepals) are still persistent at the base. One capsule contains 1 or 2 seeds which are 5 x 10 mm in size, egg-shaped and brown. [1, 2, 3, 7, 9]

I. Wood properties: [Wood properties]: Wood soft and very fragrant, consisting of irregular patches of dark wood in which heavily scented oleoresins are concentrated. These patches develop as a result of physological disturbances. [1, 2, 11]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 27°N to 5°S [2]. A.crassna is widely distributed in South Asia and Southeast Asia and occurs wild and sparsely in primary- and secondary forests on plains, hillsides and ridges. In Cambodia it occurs especially in the mountainous regions.

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oblong. Ovary (=female organ) ovoid, densely with greyish white hairs, 2-locular, style absent or very

2

[1, 2, 3, 6, 9]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Grows at an altitude of 29-1,000 m a.s.l [2] (0-1,000 m [1], 300-800 m [3], 0-850 m [7]) with regional differences. In Malaysia it can be found up to 750 m [7]. Some individuals have even been discovered at 2,000 m [3]. A. crassna grows in rainfall summer regimes with a precipitation of 1,500 - 6,500 mm/yr [2] and a dry season length of 0-4 months [2]. The mean annual temperature is 22-28ºC [2] (20-22ºC [7]), mean maximum temperature of the hottest month, 22-40ºC [2] and mean minimum temperature 14-22ºC [2] of the coldest month. 5ºC [2] is the absolute minimum temperature. It is a light demanding tree, but shade tolerant when young and can regenerate under a forest canopy of 0.4-0.6 shading [1, 3]. However other sources define A. crassna as a neutral tree, only inclined towards light demanding [9]. [1, 2, 3, 7, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Central Lowlands (d), Southern Annamites (g) [3] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Pursat (X:290299 Y:1326205), Koh Kong (X:295591 Y:1318268), Pursat (X:335014 Y:1341815), Koh Kong (X:368336 Y:1255832), Mondul Kiri (X:718332 Y:1353508), Koh Kong (X:286900 Y:1314675), Pursat (X:349462 Y:1337891), Sihanouk Ville (X:352571 Y:1166659), Kampong Speu (X:379751

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Y:1292040)

3

[3]

M. soil and site conditions : A. crassna occurs on acid to neutral deep sandy clay soils (light to medium texture), ferralitic soils with shallow to moderately deep layers and a free soil drainage. However it is well adapted to various habitats including rocky, sandy or calcareous well-drained slopes, ridges and land near swamps. [1, 2, 3, 7, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: This species is of high commercial value. "The wood is very fragrant and has been traded since biblical times for use in religious, medicinal and aromatic preparation" [3]. It is used for general furniture, round wood, plywood, posts, stakes, sawn or hewn building timbers, for light construction, carpentry/joinery, containers, crates, musical instruments, wood based materials, fuelwood and charcoal. In Cambodia the fragrant wood (especially the root) is used as incense for funeral ceremonials. [1, 2, 3, 9]

[Non-wood]: A.crassna frequently becomes infected with a fungus and begins to produce a very aromatic resin commonly called 'aloeswood', 'agarwood' and 'oud' or 'chankrosna' in Khmer language. The fungus and decomposition processes continue to generate a very rich and dark resin to form within its heartwood. The resin is created as an immune response to the fungus infection and makes one of the most sacred oils on the planet. In Japan it is used to anoint the dead and serves as a major ingredient in many Buddhist incense mixtures. In Buddhism, it is considered one of the three incenses integral to Buddhist practice together with sandalwood and cloves. The best quality is called 'Kyara'. 'Kyara' comes in four types: 'Green', 'Iron', 'Purple', and 'Black'. Agarwood can be extremely valuable depending on the oleoresin content of the wood. It is also used for producing high quality cosmetics. In Ayurvedic medicine it is used to treat a wide range of mental illnesses, it is a remedy for nervous disorders such as neurosis, obsessive behavior and exhaustion and is believed to drive evil spirits away. In Indochina the resin is used as a traditional medicine to treat asthma, chest congestion, colic, diarrhea, diuretic, kidney problems, nausea, thyroid cancer, and lung tumors. "In traditional Cambodian medicine, the wood is mixed with other drugs and used against malaria. Another variety called A. sinensis is used in medicine for its active principles baimuxol and dehydrobaimuxol" [6]. "It is also believed to be a very powerful aphrodisiac. In many cultures the women imbue their clothes as well as themselves in the fragrance of it" [7]. Fibers if the bark are used for hammock making, clothing articles and paper pulp. [1, 2, 6, 7, 11] [Others]: In Cambodia the tree can be used for amenity and aesthetic purposes and is also important for ethical values. This species is of current socio-economic importance in Cambodia (as defined on

[8]

O. Cambodian wood classification : rd

3 class [4]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: A. crassna grows wild in deep primary- and secondary forests in the mountainous regions of Cambodia. Generally it is found on plains, hillsides and ridges. [Management]: It has not been widely established in plantations because of production uncertainties of its main product, agarwood and little is known so far regarding tree management. "However, plantations have mainly been established in parts of NE-India and Bangladesh. A trial was also established in Peninsular Malaysia in 1928. After 67 years the trees had attained a diameter of 56 cm" [2]. Further research is needed on conservation of natural resources, selection of appropriate material and management in plantations, and induction of agarwood formation through artificial injury and or inoculation with fungi. Also initial trial results in Cambodia showed that Aquilaria crassna is easy to plant and very suitable for plantings under the canopies of mixed stands. [2, 3, 6]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000).

4

Q. Propagation : Distribution of the species is scattered, and it is very difficult to find mature trees for seed collection. Seeds are collected directly from the tree or from the ground after shaking the branches. "In seedsource areas, the ground is usually cleared and sometimes burnt to prepare for seed collection. To ease collection, a cover can be spread out on the ground. The optimal time of collection is reached when the fruits have changed in color from green to brownish. Maturity can be confirmed by a cutting test" [3]. "In Cambodia some local people in the districts of Thmar Beng, Modulsima, and Sre Ambil (Koh Kong Province) have collected seeds in natural forests or villages to produce seedlings in home gardens. The seedlings have been distributed to neighboring villages in order to plant on farmland. At present, these plantations exhibit good growth" [3]. The seed storage is recalcitrant. Stands can be established by using natural regeneration and planting stock. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: 4,000 seeds/kg. Planting spacing: 2.5 x 2.5 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 1,600. Rate of loss: 1,920 (20% in planting site), 2,134 (10% in transit), 2,668 (20% at the nursery). Germination rate: 60%. Purity: 95%. Total seed requirement: 1.18 kg" [5]. [2, 3, 5]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: The fungus Phialophora parasitica has been recorded as the disease causing the formation of 'chankrosna' oil inside the agarwood. No other pests and diseases are known so far.

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[2]

5

S. Conservation : Due to the high value and the high demand of the 'chankrosna' wood in global markets, this species is over-exploited and in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not implemented. "Since its natural genetic variability is now endangered, there is need for research on improvement and management. Distribution of the species is scattered, and it is very difficult to find mature trees for seed collection. In Southeast Asia, agarwood collection is reportedly becoming more difficult year-byyear as supplies of mature trees dwindle. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined Aquilaria crassna Pierre as a priority species in need of immediate conservation interventions and appropriate protection" [3]. The species is officially protected worldwide under the CITES (Convention of the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) convention, is listed in CITES Appendix II (species which may become threatened if trade is not controlled and monitored) [2, 7] and is classified as CR A1cd (=vulnerable) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees. Estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000): >10,000 [8] threatened by logging. [2, 3, 7, 8]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : This species generally occurs in the nothwestern and southwestern parts of Cambodia. [6]

Pursat, Koh Kong, Mondulkiri, Sihanoukville, Kampong Speu, Kampot, Rattanakiri [3, 10]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Northern India, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam. [7]

[Introduced]: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Iran, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. [2, 7]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Production and trade]: "In 2000, the resin-wood cost US$ 800-1,500 for 1 kg. High demand, particularly in Middle Eastern and Asian markets, combined with a decreasing supply, has pushed prices progressively higher to the extent that top grade resin can sell for over US$ 10,000/kg in enduse markets."

W. Further readings5 : Barden A. Awang Anak N. Mulliken T. Song M. (2000) Heart of the Matter: Agarwood Use and Trade and CITES Implementation for Aquilaria malaccensis. [7]

Chaudhari DC, 1993. Agarwood from Aquilaria malaccensis, (A. agallocha, Roxb.). MFP News, 3(4):12-13. 2]

Gibson IAS, 1977. The role of fungi in the origin of oleoresin deposits (agaru) in the wood of Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 6(1):16-26; [2 pl.]; 13 ref. [2]

LaFrankie JV, 1994. Population dynamics of some tropical trees that yield non-timber forest products. Economic Botany, 48(3):301-309; 28 ref. [2]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3]

6

Lok EngHai, Ahmed Zahaidi Yahya, 1996. The growth performance of plantation grown Aquilaria malaccensis in Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 8(4):573-575; 6 ref. [2]

Rahman MA, Basak AC, 1980. Agar production in agar tree by artificial inoculation and wounding. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 9(1/2):87-93; 8 ref. [2]

Rahman MA, Khisa SK, 1984. Agar production in agar tree by artificial inoculation and wounding. II. Further evidences in favour of agar formation. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 13(1/2):57-63; 14 ref. [2]

Rao KR, Dayal R, 1992. The secondary xylem of Aquilaria agallocha (Thymelaeaceae) and the formation of 'agar'. IAWA Bulletin, 13(2):163-172; 15 ref. [2]

Singadan, M., Yelu, W., Beko, J., Bosimbi, D. and Boland, D., 2001(draft), Some Aspects of the Eaglewood Trade in Papua New Guinea. [3]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Sumadiwangsa S, 1997. Agarwood as a high-value commodity in East Kalimantan [Kayu gaharu komoditi elit di Kalimantan Timur]. Duta Rimba, 20 (205/206): 33-40.

7

[2]

Zich, F.A. and Compton J., 2001, The Final Frontier: Towards Sustainable Management of Papua New Guinea's Agarwood Resource. TRAFFIC Oceania, WWF South Pacific Programme. [3]

X. References: [1] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[3] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[4] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[5] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM).

[6] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=3302&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet website)

[8] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm(Inter net source)

[9] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[10] Petri, M. (DED) 2006: Own observations.

[12] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg [4]

B. English name (s)

³

breadfruit tree [4]

C. Synonym

³

Artocarpus communis J.R. Forst.& G. Forst., Artocarpus incisus L.f. [4]

D. Other1

³

breadfruit, arbre a pain, [4] Brotfruchtbaum[13], sakéé, khnaôr samlo (Cambodia); sukun (seedless), kelur, timbul (seeded), (Indonesia, Malaysia); paung-thi, (Burma); rimas (seedless), kamansii (seeded) sake (seedless), (Philippines); khanun-sampalor (Thailand); sakê (Vietnam) [6,16].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

saek/ xñúrsmø Source: [-]

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F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ saké, khnaö(r), sâmlâ [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Urticales Family: Moraceae Gunus: Artocarpus J.R. Forster & J.G. Forster [16] Species: Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg. [4]

Source :[ 4 ; 16]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A tall, beautiful, evergreen tree, reaching 15 to 20m, with diameter sometimes exceeding 60cm (1); terete, 6-15m tall, introduced and cultivated near villages as ornamental and fruit tree.[4]. All parts exude a milky, bitter-tasting latex when cut [1,13]. The bole is normally straight, the crown consisting of only a few large branches [1]. An evergreen or deciduous tree, up to 30 m tall and 180 cm in diameter, often buttressed; branches very thick [6]. [Bark]: The bark is smooth, brown with numerous corky lenticels [1]. [Leaves]: Evergreen, with alternate, stipulate leaves, which are deeply cut (7-11 lobes). Leaves large up to 30-90 cm long. Upper surface glabrous except along principal nerves [1]. The leaves are large, often deeply lobed, rough and leathery on the surface, upper side shiny green (13). Leaves alternate, ovate to elliptical in form, 20-60 cm x 20-40 cm, first undivided, later deeply pinnately cut into 5-11 lobes, thick, leathery, dark green and shiny above, pale green and rough below. Leaf stalk 3-5 cm long [6]. [Flowers]: Numerous, very small, monoecious, (meaning the same tree bears separately male and female flowers). Male flowers arranged in cylindrical spikes 12-35 cm long; the female inflorescence is ellipsoid or circular, 6-7cm long [1]. Male and female inflorescences separate, but on same tree, axillary on 4-8 cm long flower stalks. Male stands drooping, club-shaped, 15-25 cm long and 3-4 cm wide, spongy and yellow. Female stands upright, globose or cylindrical, 8-10 x 5-7 cm, with numerous green flowers embedded in a receptacle [6]. Inflorescences on short twigs emanating from the stem.

[Fruit]: Two varieties of breadfruit trees exist: one is seed bearing the other sterile, which is the one cultivated and considered as the breadfruit proper. The fruit is a globose or an ovoid syncarp (many small fruit grown together into a large one) weighing between 0.5 and 3.0 kg. It is usually more regarded as a vegetable than a fruit. There exist many cultivars, some produce seedless fruit [1]. The fruit is formed from the entire female inflorescence, cylindrical to globose, 10-30 cm in diameter, yellow-green, sometimes with short spines. All tree parts exuding white latex when cut [6]. Fruit a globose syncarp of 10-20 cm diameter, green and warty on the outside. Inside a soft yellow-white mass forms with the onset of maturity. Seeds resembling chestnuts, 2-3 cm in diameter [13].

I. Wood properties: Specific gravity for A. altilis is given as 270 kg/m³. Sapwood yellow or brownish yellow, heartwood orange with golden speckles. However, the wood can be used for a variety of light construction purposes, e.g. structural elements in boats. The golden yellow colour darkens with age. The wood is on average medium heavy (density 505-645 kg/m³ at 15% mc), durable, soft, but quite resistant in spite of its low(?) specific gravity [20]. (this must be an error, low specific gravity or light weight ends between 330-400kg/m³ (KayPanzer)

A. heterophylla (jackfruit) and A. altilis (breadfruit) are

predominantly cultivated for fruit, not for wood [13,16].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Female flowers in inflorescences with hundreds of flowers [13].

2

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Artocarpus altilis most likely was cultivated in New Guinea a few thousand years ago. It is a plant of the Pacific Islands but long since to be considered native in Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Malaysia [27]. Today it is a common sorce as the average family´s staple or supplementary food in countries of South and Central America America, West Indian Islands, Caribbean Islands, West and East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and many more [20]. The dissemination of seedless types beyond Oceania is well documented and involves only a handful of cultivars, primarily Tahitian. A. altilis as a fruit and survival tree has been an the representing tree species of Oceania since Europeans first ventured into the region in the late 1600s. Originally from the Pacific Islands and Polynesia, A. altilis is at home and naturalized in practically all tropical regions as fruit and ornamental tree. It occurs semi-wild in numerous places at altitudes below 700 m asl [1,4,13]. Artocarpus comprises about 50 species, distributed from Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan and Indochina towards the Malesian Archipelago and the Solomon Islands; 16 species occur in Peninsular Malaysia [16].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A. altilis thrives in humid tropical environment, at low altitude, at 0-2500m elevation asl, particularly under an island climate; it requires between 1,500 and 2,500 mm, 1000-5000mm/ m² of annual precipitation with a temperature range of 21ºC to 32 ºC, 23-27ºC [1,12]. A wet tropical species, preferring 20-40 ºC, 2000-3000 mm/ m² annual rainfall disributed evely during the summer with two peaks [6]. The limits of the area of distribution are approximately from 20º N to 20º S in north-south Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

direction [12].

3

Young plants require little shade but grown plants need full sunlight for best production. [1]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Shallow or water-logged soils are not tolerated, otherwise not a demanding species. A. altilis is the dominant species in riverine swamp forests of New Guinea; however, most species prefer a clayey soil [1,16]. A. altilis prefers moist, rich, well-drained soils at altitudes below 600 m asl.[6]

N. Utilization and importance : A. altilis is a multipurpose tree cultivated for its highly nutritious, carbohydrate-rich fruit. It is now grown worldwide as an indispensable food resource in under-supplied rural areas. The Solomon Islands and Vanuatu presumably dispose of the richest diversity of seeds and few-seeded cultivars, whereas the greatest range of seedless cultivars is found in eastern Polynesia,-Society Islands, Marquesas, Pohnpei, and Chuuk in Micronesia. There exist hundreds of cultivars adapted to varying climatic and soil conditions (Ragone 1997). A serious problem in local, regional and international

marketing is the strongly limited storage time of ripe breadfruit. Even in the area of production it has to be harvested a few days ahead of maturity to allow for local transportation without degrade to the fruit. When over-ripe, the flesh becomes mealy and loses taste.The dried fruit can be converted to flour for various usus in daily cooking [1]. Similar fruit-producing species of the Artocarpus genus are A. integer, cultivated in the Malay Archipelago, with a fruit more similar to jackfruit, softer and slightly more aromatic. On the island of Kalimantan (Borneo) and in the Philippines A. odoratissima is grown. The fruit is sweet and juicy and seeds are roasted for consumption [13]. [Wood]: Although it is little utilized because its light weight (270kg/m³) it is firm and could be used for boats, crates and boxes and in light construction. It has been used occasionally for surfboards in Haiti[1]. Traditionally it was widely used for construction of houses and canoes because of its resistance to termites and marine worms. The wood is used in Haiti to make bowls, carvings, and furniture. [20] The trees are an important source of firewood on the atolls of the Pacific [20]. Timber narkets in the area are trading various Artocarpus species, but in limited volumes. With the exception of the 4 fruit-bearing species, A. altilis, A. heterophyllus, A. integer and A. odoratissima most Artocarpus species are used as a source of timber. In the timber trade distinction is made on the basis of specific weight and 2 trade groups are formed: terap, light-weight hardwood, comprising A. elasticus, A, scortechinii, timber of Parartocarpus spp. and Antiaris toxicaria, which is similar in properties and uses. The second group is called keledang, medium-weight hardwood, with A. anisophyllus, A. dadah, A. lanceifolius. Separation is not always easy and an arbitrary limit of

Sarawak and Papua New Guinea. More recent figures are not available but it is evident that trade will remain at the regional level. However, several species could become economically important because they are fast-growing and the wood is suitable for a variety of uses [16]. [Non-Wood]: In first place the breadfruit tree is an important source of food [13]. Predominantly the seedless varieties are cultivated. The fruit is cooked or baked. Fresh fruit are easily digestible but are also cut into slices and dried in open air or copra ovens for conservation and later use. Seeds are cooked, boiled, fried and roasted in different ways. Fruit should be harvested about three months after flowering in an unripe state to allow for transportation and marketing in good condition [1]. Bark fibres are used as binding and plaiting material. [16].The latex can be used for trapping birds, the foliage as animal feed in times of drought. By burying the entire fruit in the ground the pulp starts fermenting, yielding a product comparable to cheese [13]. Breadfruit is versatile and can be cooked and eaten at all stages of its development. It can be eaten raw, boiled, steamed or roasted. Very small fruits, 2-6 cm or larger in diameter, can be boiled and have a flavour similar to that of artichoke hearts. They can also be pickled and marinated. As breadfruit is a seasonal crop that produces much more than can be consumed fresh, Pacific Islanders have developed many techniques to use large harvests and extend availability of the fruit. The most common method of preservation is by preparing the fermented, pit-preserved breadfruit called ma,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

640kg/m³ at 15% m.c. has been set. Trade in 1992 was around 10,000 cubic meters, from Sabah,

masi, mahr, furo or bwiru. In many areas, the male inflorescence is pickled or candied [20].

4

Compared with other staple starch crops, breadfruit is a better source of protein than is cassava; it is comparable to sweet potato and banana. It is a relatively good source of iron, calcium, potassium and riboflavin. Fermented breadfruit and breadfruit paste are both traditional products. Processing breadfruit into a snack such as chips, flour, pulverized starch or even freeze-drying it are all common methods of consuming or preserving it. [20] The seeds are cooked with the raw breadfruit or removed and roasted or boiled. They are firm, closetextured and have a sweet, pleasant taste that is most often compared with chestnuts. Both fresh and cooked seeds contain about 8% protein. The seeds are low in fat, compared with tree nuts such as almond, brazil nut and macadamia nut, which contain 50-70% fat. They are a good source of minerals and contain more niacin than cashews, almonds, macadamia nuts, brazil nuts, pecans, black walnuts or chestnuts [20]. The food value is given as follows (in percent): water

79.5

protein

1.5

lipids

0.2

sugar&starch 17.9 minerals

0.9

cellulose

-

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

calcium

5

0.04

phosphorous 0.03 iron

0,5

carotene

15/100g(I.U.)

The calorific value of the fruit is 75-80cal/100 g. [1]. "Leaves are eaten by livestock and can be fed to cattle, goats, pigs and horses. They have even been reported to be good food for elephants. Horses will eat the bark, young branches and shoots. Therefore, it seems wise to keep horses away from new plantings. Excess ripe breadfruit, seeds, cores and other breadfruit waste are fed to pigs and other animals. Cordage can be made by combining the male flower spikes with fibre of paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) to make elegant loincloths. The inner layer of bark, or bast, was used to make bark cloth (tapa). Traditionally it had ceremonial and ritual uses, was also used for beddings and items of clothing such as cloaks, loincloths and robes. Breadfruit bast makes good cordage with a diverse range of uses such as harnesses for water buffalo and nets for catching sharks [20,26]. Various plant parts have medicinal uses [6]. Toasted flowers are rubbed on the gums around aching teeth to ease pain. Latex is massaged into the skin to treat broken bones and sprains and is bandaged on the spine to relieve sciatica. It is commonly used to treat skin ailments and fungal

diseases such as thrush. The latter is also treated with crushed leaves. Diluted latex is taken internally to treat diarrhoea, stomach-ache and dysentery. Latex and juice from the crushed leaves are both traditionally used in the Pacific Islands to treat ear infections. The root is an astringent and is used as a purgative; when macerated it was used as a poultice for skin ailments. The bark is used in several Pacific Islands to treat headache. In the West Indies, the yellowing leaf is brewed into a tea and taken to reduce high blood pressure. The tea is also thought to control diabetes. Leaves are used in Taiwan to treat liver diseases and fevers, and an extract from the flowers was effective in treating ear oedema. Bark extracts exhibited strong cytotoxic activities against leukaemia cells in tissue culture, and extracts from roots and stem barks showed some antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria and may have potential in treating tumours [20,26]. A yellow dye can be extracted from chips of A. altilis wood. Leaves and fallen fruit make good aimal feed (9). [Others]: A. altilis gum is used to caulk canoes to make them watertight and can be used as an adhesive to seal and prepare wooden surfaces for painting [20]. A sticky latex is present in all parts of the tree and has many uses. It is used as a chewing gum in the Caribbean and elsewhere. The sap is widely used throughout the Pacific and other areas as birdlime to catch birds for food and their feathers. In Korea, the latex is mixed with coconut oil for trapping houseflies.

The fat extracted from the seed is a light yellow liquid, viscous at room temperature, with a characteristic odour similar to that of peanuts. It has a chemical molecular number and physical properties similar to those of olive oil. In Vanuatu and Hawaii the dried, hard flowers are burned as mosquito repellent" [20,26]. The leaves are frequently used for wrapping food for cooking. Senescent, ripe leaves develp a rough surface and are sed for polishing and nuts used on strings as decoration [20]. A. altilis produces a lot of mulch for soil improvement, it is also a good shade tree and as such a valuable component in agroforestry landuse, where black pepper, coffee but also yams and other root crops and bananas are interplanted. In some Pacific Islands A. altilis serves as support for yam vines. [26].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

The inflorescence was used in Hawaii to make a yellow tan to brown dye.

6

P. Silviculture and management : Young trees grown from stumps can be transplanted to orchards or planted along road side after taking root and sprouting. Artocarpus requires good soil conditions and can grow rather rapidly. Partial shade should be provided until the plants are well established. Spacing should be between 8x8 m minimum and up to 10x10 m [1]. In plantations Artocarpus soon forms a closed canopy. Natural pruning is satisfactory as the species is characterized by dense crowns which also greatly reduces growth of weeds. The large amounts of litter, which easily decompose, also reduces weed development.[16]

Q. Propagation : The following description of cultivation techniques applies only to the sterile variety, which is propagated by suckers, layers or root cuttings. Generally seeds germinate easily, about 85% for A. altilis. Root suckers produced by A. altilis can be used for air-layering, however, the taking of root cuttings is the more common method of propagation [16]. For these, sections of 2 cm diameter and 10-15 cm length are cut. They are planted at an angle in sandy soil, covered by a layer of 1 cm of material and frequently watered [1] Seeds are usually rated as recalcirant and lose their viability rapidly, meaning 0% germination after only 2 weeks for some species. Germination starts between 2 and 4 weeks but may last for up to 9 weeks after sowing[16]. A. altilis, A. hirsutus Lamk, A. integer, A. rigidus and A. sercicarpus can serve as rootstock for air layering, budding and grafting of other major fruit producing species of Artocarpus. Seeds are extracted from ripe fruits and immediately planted, as they lose viability within a few weeks.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

They are planted about 5 cm apart and 1 cm deep. They germinate about 2 weeks after sowing.

7

Fresh seeds germinate easily, with a rate of about 85%. The germination bed should be kept moist. Seedlings can be transplanted into individual containers as soon as they sprout. They grow quickly and are ready for planting in the field when they are about 1 year old. A. altilis is generally propagated vegetatively. Root suckers produced by the tree can be used for airlayering. However, using root cuttings is the more common method of propagation. The time for collecting roots is the most important factor for successful propagation. Best collection is during the dormant season immediately preceding the renewal of growth, or at the beginning of that period, when carbohydrate stores in roots are highest. The dormant period (2-3 months) begins immediately after the crop ripens. A. altilis has also been successfully propagated using inarching, budding, stem cuttings and marcotting [20].

R. Hazards and protection : Rastrococcus invadens, or commonly known as mango mealybug. Several species of Artocarpus are attacked by the fungi Corticium salmonicolor and Phellinus lamaoensis, while larvae of the moth Glyphodes caesalis bore into shoots, flower buds and young fruit. However, these threaten primarily A. heterophyllus, the jackfruit tree; no mention is made of attacks of A. altilis [16]. Breadfruit is a hardy tree and is relatively free of diseases and pests, although scale insects, mealy bugs and Cercospora leafspot may be seen on many trees. Pest problems seem to be regional [20]. Fruits may be affected

by Phytophthora, Colletotrichum (anthracnose) and Rhizopus (soft rot), but these can be controlled by prompt harvest of mature fruits and removal of diseased fruit [20].

S. Conservation : Not a threatened species [1,16].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Occurring everywhere in the lowlands of the country

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Cultivated in the humid tropics world-wide[6], native in New Guinea, Malaysia and Philippines, introduced elsewhere.

V. Miscellaneous4 : A close relative is the African breadnut tree, Treculia africana, also from the family Moraceae,grows in rain forests of West Africa but also along rivers. The female flowers develop into a composite, globose fruit with knobbly skin which may weigh up to 15 kg. It contains many seeds which are ounded into a meal or eaten roasted or fried [9].

W. Further readings5 : Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of sSoutheast Asia.No.2, Edible fruits and nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen, 446 pp. Wadsworth, F.H. 1964: Common trees of >Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.

Agricultural Handbook no. 249. USDA. 548 pp. Ragone,D,1977: Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis(Parkinson) Fosberg. Promoting the conservation and use of under-utilized and neglected crops.. INstitute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant research. Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resource Nstitute, Rome. Ragone, D 1995: Description of Pacific Island breadfruit cultivars..Acta Horticulturae 413;92-98; 8 ref. Reeve, RM, 1974; Histological structure and commercial dehydration potential of breadfruit. Economic Botany 28: 82-96. Suharban M, Philip S, 1987: Fruit rot of breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa L. South Indian Horticulture. 35(5):397; Waterhouse, DF, 1991: Possibilities of biological control of the breadfruit mealybug Icerya aegyptiaca on Pacific Island Atolls. Micronesica No 3, Supplement:117-122; 11 ref. Cambie RC, Ash J, 1994. Fijian medicinal plants. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Little, E.L. Jr.&

8

Matthews RF, Bates RP, Graham HD, 1986. Utilization of breadfruit in the tropics. Proceedings of the Interamerican Society for Tropical Horticulture, 30:83-94; [34th Annual Meeting, San José, Costa Rica, 28 Jul.-2 Aug., 1986]; 15 ref.

Ragone D, 1990. Conservation and use of breadfruit in the Pacific Islands. In: Harris W, Kapoor P, eds. Contributions to an international Workshop on Ethnobotany. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch, New Zealand, 82-85.

Rajendran R, 1991. Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg. In: Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible Fruits and Nuts (Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, eds.). PROSEA foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 83-86.

Wootton M, Tumaalii F, 1984. Breadfruit production, utilisation and composition - a review. Food Technology in Australia, 36(10):464-465; 19 ref. Cobley L.S & Steele W.M. 1976. An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops. Longman Group Limited.

Hong TD, Linington S, Ellis RH. 1996. Seed storage behaviour: a compendium. Handbooks for Genebanks: No. 4. IPGRI.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Ragone D. 1997. Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 10. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources institute, Rome, Italy.

9

Raynor B. 1991. Agroforestry systems in Pohnpei. Practices and strategies for development. Forestry Development Programme.

X. References: 1)

FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.

4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 915 pp.,

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide Thames & Hudson Ltd.,London. 484 pp.

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (CD)

13) BAERTELS, A. 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart, Germany, illustrated, 384 pp

16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp.

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

18) Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in Khmer and English) Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 97 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

26) World Agroforestry Centre: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicList.asp (Internet source)

10

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam] ³

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam

B. English name (s)

³

jackfruit [2], jack [4]

C. Synonym

³

Artocarpus brasiliensis Gomez (1812), Artocarpus

A. Latin name

(s)

integer (Thunb.) Merrill, Artocarpus integra Merr., Artocarpus integrifolia L.F, Artocarpus integrifolia L.F & A. integra Merr., Artocarpus maxima Blanco (1837)., Artocarpus philippensis Lamk (1789), Artocarpus integrifolia auct. [7], Artocarpus integrifolius auct. [4]

D. Other1

³

jaca, jacueiro (Spain) [4] - jacquier (France) [4] - kathal (Bangladesh) [4] - Jackfruchtbaum (Germany) [4] - nangka, nongko (Indonesia) [4] - alasa, halasu, kathal, kathar, phanas, pila, pilavu (India) [4] - miiz, miiz hnang (Laos) [4] jak (Sri Lanka) [4] - khnaôr, peignai (Myanmar) [4] - nangka (Malaysia) [4] - kapiak (Papua New Guinea) [4] - jak, langka, nangka (Philippines) [4] - banun, khanum, makmi, nangka (Thailand) [4] - mít (Vietnam) [4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

1

xñúr Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khnaôr [5] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Urticales Family: Moraceae [4] Source :[ -]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small tree with a height of 10-20 m [2] at maturity and a DBH of 30-60 cm [2]. Bole straight but branching begins quickly. [2] [Leaves]: The leaves are 4-25 x 2-12 cm [6], leathery, glossy, usually hairless. The upper surface is dark green, the lower surface pale green. Leaves may be flat, wrinkled or with upcurled sides, arranged alternately on horizontal branches, and spirally on ascending branches with 2/5 phyllotaxis; broadest at or above the mid-portion; pinnately nerved, with 5-12 pairs of veins. [6] [Flowers]: No information available. [Fruits]: The fruits grow from the trunk and branches.The fruit (=syncarp) is barrel- or pear-shaped, 30-100 cm × 25-50 cm [7], with short pyramidal protuberances or warts. The fruit-stalk is 5-10 x 1-1.5 cm. The outer fruitwall is approx. 1 cm thick, together with the central core receptacle inseparable from the waxy, firm or soft, golden yellow, fleshy perianths surrounding the seeds. The fruit have both sexes occuring on one tree but separately. The seeds are numerous, oblong-ellipsoid, 2-4 cm × 1.52.5 cm [7], enclosed by horny endocarps and subgelatinous exocarps. Fruit flesh thin and leathery; embryo with ventral radicle, cotyledons fleshy, unequal; endosperm very small or absent. "A welldeveloped fruit may contain up to 500 seeds, each weighing 3-6 g" [7]. [2, 6, 7]

I. Wood properties: The timber is classified as a medium hardwood. It is resistant to termite attack, fungal and bacterial decay, easy to season and takes polish beautifully. The wood is yellow at first, later becoming red,

[5, 6]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : It fruits in latitudes between 30°N and S in frost-free areas and bears good crops between 25°N and S. Jackfruit is native to Malaysia where it is found mainly in evergreen forests but cultivated everywhere in the tropics and subtropics for its edible fruits. [3, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : In its original habitat jackfruit is found at altitudes of 400-1,200 m a.s.l. [5]. Elsewhere it grows at 01,600 m a.s.l. [4] (0-1,000 m a.s.l. [2, 7]). For optimum production it requires a warm, humid climate and evenly distributed rainfall. Mean annual temperature: 16-22°C [6] (16-35°C [2]), Mean annual rainfall: 1,000-2,400 mm [6] (1,100-2,400 mm [4], 900-4,000 mm [2]). It extends into much drier and cooler climates than Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg and Artocarpus integer. It has moderate wind tolerance and does not tolerate drought or flooding [6] (it has some drought tolerance [7]). It can also withstand lower temperatures and frost [2] (it has poor cold tolerance [7]). A dry season of 3-4 months [2] (2-4 months [4]) is tolerated. [2, 4, 6, 7]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

with a specific gravity of 0.6-0.7 g/cm³ [6] but not as strong as teak.

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Jackfruit thrives well in deep, alluvial, sandy-loam or clay loam soils of medium fertility, good drainage and a pH of 5-7.5. "It flourishes in rich soils of medium or open texture and grows even in the poorest soils, including gravelly or lateritic soils, shallow limestone, shallow light soils, and sandy or stony soils. It exhibits moderate tolerance to saline soils." [6]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: A. heterophyllus wood is considered superior to teak (Tectona grandis) for furniture, construction, turnery and inlay work, masts, oars, implements, fuelwood and musical instruments. [6] [Non-wood]: Edible fruit, immature fruits used as vegetation in cooked dishes such as curries. The seeds, rich in vitamin A, sulphur, calcium and phosphorus, are eaten after boiling or roasting, dried and salted as table nuts, or ground to make flour that is blended with wheat flour for baking. Fodder is not good, but leaves and fruit rinds usable. The bark gives a dark, water-soluble resinous gum that contains 3.3% tannin. The latex yields 71.8% resin, consisting of 63.3% fluavilles (yellow) and 8.5%

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

albanes (white). When boiled with alum, the sawdust or chips of the heartwood produce a rich yellow

3

dye used for silk and the cotton robes of Buddhist priests. In Nepal, the root is used as a medicine to relieve diorrhea and unripe fruit as a laxaive [2]. Arils can be fermented and distilled to produce an alcoholic beverage. [6] [Others]: Erosion control: "A. heterophyllus can be planted to control floods and soil erosion in farms" [6]. Shade or shelter: "Trees planted at a close spacing act as a windbreak and are sometimes used as shade for coffee" [6]. Boundary or barrier or support: "The trunk is occasionally used as living support for pepper" [6]. Intercropping: "In the Philippines, A. heterophyllus is planted with coconut groves. In Malaysia, trees have been used as an intercrop in durian orchards, and in India the trees are intercropped with mango and citrus. Young A. heterophyllus orchards may be intercropped with annual cash crops such as banana, sweet corn and groundnut" [6]. It is also used for soil improvement, revegetation and land reclamation. [4, 6]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]:A. heterophyllus grows naturally in evergreen forests. [Establishment]: For stand establishment, the area should be cleared of all vegetation before digging planting holes (60-80 x 40-50 cm [5]). During the stand development, trees should be thinned to a spacing of 7.5-12 m because a lack of thinning may lead to die-back. [Management]: "Pruning is limited to thinning the shoots when the trees are planted and some clearing of the bearing branches to facilitate access to the fruit for wrapping up and harvesting [5]". Dead branches should be removed from the interior of the tree so that sufficient light is obtained for the developing fruit and to check the spread of pests. Both interrow- and circle weeding are applied to suppress weed growth; mulching may be suitable and also conserves soil moisture. Watering of trees during the dry season is recommended, however the soil at the base of the plant should be raised and drainage pathways need to be constructed to avoid waterlogging. Fertilizer should be applied twice per year before and after the rainy season. "The recommended rates vary from 1 kg compound fertilizer per tree per application (Peninsular Malaysia) to 2-3 kg (the Philippines)" [5]. Coppicing abilities are poor while height growth of 5 m in 5 years is possible [2]. Increment rates of 3-5 m³/ha/yr can be observed. "In the Philippines, A. heterophyllus is planted with coconut groves. In Malaysia, trees have been used as an intercrop in durian orchards, and in India the trees are intercropped with mango and citrus. Young A. heterophyllus orchards may be intercropped with annual cash crops such

[2, 5, 6]

Q. Propagation : Trees are propagated by grafting, direct sowing and using planting stock. The tree regenerates rapidly."Seeds should be obtained from outstanding mother trees. Only large seeds are used. Extraction includes thorough washing to remove the slimy coating around the seeds, and removal of the horny part of the pericarp" [6]. The seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant. Viability is maintained for 2 years in moist storage at 15°C [6]. Seeds are kept in polythene bags filled with perlite at 6°C [6]. There are about 430 seeds/kg [6]. Under suitable conditions, germination begins within 10 days, and 80-100% germination is achieved within 35-40 days after sowing. Soaking seeds in water or gibberellic acid solution promotes germination. Seeds are laid flat or with the hilium facing down to hasten germination.It is possible to grow seedlings from cuttings, and clonally propagated plants produce fruits very early. Seedlings and vegetative propagules should be raised in containers and arranged in rows in the nursery to minimize crowding and facilitate management. For rapid growth, propagules may be grown in a mixture of compost and clay loam soil, and nitrogen fertilizers may be applied every 2-3 months [6] with regular watering. The propagules thrive best under partial shade of 50-70% full sunlight [6]. Seedlings can be planted out when 20-25 cm tall. Grafted or budded plants can be planted out 2-5 months after the operation, or when flushes in the scion part have matured. Air-layered plants should be planted out 2-3 months after the rooted layer is severed from the plant.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

as banana, sweet corn and peanut" [6].

4

The seedlings should be moved by the time 4 leaves have appeared; a more advanced seedling, with its long and delicate taproot is difficult to plant out successfully. In general, propagules should be planted out before the roots grow outside the container and would be disturbed, as this can adversely affect growth and development of the plant. [4, 6]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Bactrocera dorsalis, Bactrocera umbrosa, Batocera rubus, Batocera rufomaculata, Cosmoscarta relata, Glyphodes caesalis, Indarbela tetraonis, Ochyromera artocarpi. [6] [Diseases]: Fungi: Corticium salmonicolor, Phomopsis artocarpina, Rhizoctonia koleroga, Rhizopus artocarpi , Rhizopus stolonifer, Septoria artocarpi. Bacteria: Erwinia carotovora Fungicide is commonly sprayed to protect trees from diseases. [6]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

No information available.

5

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]:

[Native]: Bangladesh, India, Malaysia [6]

[Exotic] : Algeria, Angola, Australia, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, China, Comoros, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Indonesia, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Philippines, Rwanda, Sao Tome et Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Surinam, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe. [6]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [History of cultivation]: "A. heterophyllus reportedly originated in the rainforests of India and Malaysia. The species then spread to neighbouring Sri Lanka, southern China, Southeast Asia, and further to

tropical Africa, including Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Mauritius and Madagascar. A. heterophyllus was probably introduced in the Philippines in the 12th century, and domestication of the crop started thereafter. It is commonly planted on smallholder Indian cane farms, in home gardens in Fiji, and occasionally in rural gardens and home gardens in other areas of the Pacific." [6]

W. Further readings5 : Acedo AL. 1992. Multipurpose Tree Species Network Series: Jackfruit biology, production, use, and Philippine research. Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development Project.` [1]

Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC (eds.). 1995. Plant Resources of South-east Asia. No 5(2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. [1]

Perry LM. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia : attributed properties and uses. MIT Press. South East Asia. [1]

[1]

Verheij EWM, Coronel RE (eds.). 1991. Plant Resources of South East Asia No 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. [1]

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [5] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Roshetko JM and Evans DO. 1997. Domestication of Agroforestry trees in Southeast Asia. Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report [7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep

7

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Averrhoa bilimbi L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Averrhoa bilimbi L.] A. Latin name

(s)

³

B. English name (s)

³

C. Synonym

³

D. Other1

³

Averrhoa bilimbi L. [6] Billimbi, cucumber tree [6], tree sorrel [26]

tralong tong (Cambodia); belimbing asam, belimbing wuluh, belimbing buluk (Indonesia, Malaysia); tayok zaungya (Burma ); kamias, iba (Philippines); taling pling, kaling pring (Thailand); khe tau (Vietnam) [6] cornichon des Indes, zibeline, blinblin, blimblim (French) grosella china, mimbro (Spanish) [26].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

Rtlwgtwg

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [-]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ trôlüng tüng [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Geraniales Family: Oxalidaceae[4], (Averrhoaceae)[11] Gunus: Averrhoa Species: Averrhoa bilimbi L. Source :[11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A shrub, [4]; a small tree with few, upright branches, 6-9 m high [6]. tree, 5-10 m high, short trunk, dividing soon into a number of branches [26]. [Leaves]: Leaves pinnate, usually with 7-19 pairs of 5-12 cm long ovate leaflets and a single terminal leaflet [6]. Leaves mainly clustered at the branch tips, alternate, imparipinnate; 30-60 cm long, with 11-37 alternate or subopposite leaflets, ovate or oblong, with rounded base and pointed tip; downy; medium green on the upper surface, pale on the underside; 2-10 cm long. 1.20-1.25 cmwide [26]. [Flowers]: Axillary or cauliflorous, with red-purple-colored free petals, 10-22 mm long . Flowers small, fragrant, auxiliary (axillary?) or cauliflorous, 5-petalled, yellowish-green or purplish marked with darkpurple, 10-22mm long, borne in small hairy panicles emerging directly from the trunk and oldest, thickest branches and some twigs, as do the clusters of curious fruits [26]. [Fruit]: Fruit is a yellowish-green berry, slightly lobed and up to 10x5 cm [6]. Fruit ellipsoid, obovoid or nearla cylindrical faintly 5-sided, 4-10 cm long; capped with a thin, star-shaped calyx at the stem-end and tipped with 5 hair-like floral remnants at the apex. Crispy when unripe the fruit turns from bright green to yellowish-green, ivory or nearly white when ripe and falls to the ground. The outer skin is glossy, very thin, soft and tender, and the flesh green, jelly-like, juicy and extremely acid. There may be a few (6-7)flattened, disc-like seeds, 6 mm wide, smooth, brown [26]. Flowering begins in February and continues flowering and fruiting until December [26].

I. Wood properties: grained, and weighs abot 560kg/m³. It is seldom available in adequate dimensions for carpentry [26[.

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Perhaps a native of the Moluccas, A. bilimbi is cultivated throughout Indonesia, it is cultivated and semi-wild everywhere in the Philippines and is much grown in Sri Lanka and Myanmar. It is very common in Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore, frequent in gardens across the plains of India, and has run wild in all the warmest areas of that country. It is much planted in Zanzibar. Introduced into Queensland around 1896, it was readily adopted and commercially distributed to growers [26]. It can be found everywhere in Southeast Asia but is now being cultivated all over the humid tropics [6]..

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Prefers seasonal humid climates with a drier season but not drought. Tolerates slightly saline soils, but not flooding or permanent salinity. A. bilimbi is a tropical tree, more sensitive to cold than A. carambola, especially when very young. Ideally, it prefers seasonally humid climates, rainfall should be rather evenly distributed throughout most of the year but there should be a 2-3 month dry season. The tree makes slow growth in shady or semi-shady situations. It should be in full sun [26].

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The wood is whitish, soft and can be used as firewood.[6] The wood is white, soft but tough, even-

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : The tree does best in rich, moist, slightly acidic, well-drained soil, but also grows and fruits quite well on sand or limestone, it will tolerate slightly saline soil [6].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Predominantly used as firewood [6] [ Non-Wood]: The fruit is much more acid (ph 4.5) than A. carambola. It is less consumed fresh and more processed into curries [26]. Fruit consumed fresh or processed as jam, curries or pickled [19]. They yield 44.2% juice having a pH of 4.47, and the juice is popular for making cooling beverages. Mainly, the bilimbi is used in place of mango to make chutney, and it is much preserved. To reduce acidity, it may be first pricked and soaked in water overnight, or soaked in salted water for a shorter time; then it is boiled with much sugar to make a jam or an acid jelly. The latter, in Malaysia, is added to stewed fruits that are oversweet. Half-ripe fruits are salted, set out in the sun, and pickled in brine and can be thus kept for 3 months. The flowers are sometimes preserved with sugar [26]. There are several different medical uses known in traditional medicine, e.g. in the Philippines, the leaves are applied as a paste or poulticed on itches, swellings of mumps and rheumatism, and on skin eruptions. Elsewhere, they are applied on bites of poisonous creatures. Malaysians take the leaves Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

fresh or fermented as a treatment for venereal disease. A leaf infusion is a remedy for coughs and is

3

taken after childbirth as a tonic. A leaf decoction is taken to relieve rectal inflammation. A flower infusion is said to be effective against coughs and thrush. In Java, the fruits combined with pepper are eaten to cause sweating when people are feeling "under the weather". A paste of pickled bilimbis is smeared all over the body to hasten recovery after a fever. The fruit conserve is administered as a treatment for coughs, beri-beri and biliousness. Syrup prepared from the fruit is taken as a cure for fever and inflammation and to stop rectal bleeding and alleviate internal hemorrhoids It is taken as laxative based on the content of oxalic acid. [1,6,26]. A. bilimbi is frequently planted as an ornamental tree [1]. [Other]: The high acidity of oxalic acid makes it possible to clean Kris (the traditional dagger) from rust stain, to bleach rust stain from hands and white cloth, and also to clean tarnished brass items [26].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : Q. Propagation : With seeds, or by layering, cuttings [1] Propagated by seed, by layering and also by budding on 1year-old seedlings. The seedlings are transplanted into polyethylene bags and, after 6-12 months in the nursery, outplanted with 4mx6m spacing, similar to A. carambola [6]

R. Hazards and protection : Not unlike with A.carambola since the 2 species are closely related. A significant difference is that A. bilimbi is considerably less cold tolerant [26].

S. Conservation : not a threatened species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : grown all over the humid tropics [6] native in Malaysia and Indonesia, introduced in South America, West Indian Islands, United States of America, Australia, Philippines [26].

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Mackeen MM, Ali AM, El Sharkawy SH, Manap MY, Salleh KM, Lajis NH, Kawazu K. 1997. Antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of some Malaysian traditional vegetables (ulam). International Journal of Pharmacognosy. 35(3): 174-178 Morton J. 1987. Bilimbi. p. 128-129. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, Florida. Nagy S, Shaw PE, Wardowski WF (eds.). 1991. Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin: composition, properties and uses. Florida Science Source, Inc. Lake Alfred, Florida. Warren JM, Emamdie DZ, Kalai. 1997. Reproductive allocation and pollinator distributions in cauliflorus trees in Trinidad. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 13(3): 337-345.

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Ecology, distribution, uses quite similar to A. carambola [6]

4

X. References: 4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

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20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD).

5

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Averrhoa carambola L.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Averrhoa carambola L.] ³

Averrhoa carambola L. [6]

B. English name (s)

³

star fruit, carambola, (English and Spanish) [6]

C. Synonym

³

D. Other1

³

A. Latin name

(s)

spü (Cambodia); fuand (Laos); belimbing manis (Malaysia, Indonesia); zaung ya (Burma); balimbing (Philippines); ma fuang (Thailand); khe (Vietnam). Carambolier (French) [1,6)

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

s
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ spü [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae

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Phylum: Spermatophyta

1

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Geraniales Family: Oxalidaceae (Averrhoaceae) [11] Gunus: Averrhoa Species: Averrhoa carambola L. [6] Source :[4 ; 6 ; 11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A small evergreen, multistemmed tree 3-5 m, exceptionally 10 m high; diameter about 15 cm at base [1]; small tree or shrub [13]. A small, usually much branched tree up to 15 m tall. Bushy growth, usually with drooping branches [6]. [Bark]: Light brown, smooth or finely fissured. [Leaves]: Alternate, pinnate, 15-25 cm long, disposed in a more or less horizontal plane; shortly petiolate with 7-9 pendant leaflets. Leaf sensitive to contact in the same way as certain of Mimosa spp. [1]. 3-6 pairs of 4-10 cm long, ovate leaflets and a single terminal leaflet [6]. Leaves imparipinnate [13]. [Flowers]: They arise in panicles 2-5 cm long in axils of old or fallen leaves. Flowers are pentamerous with a calyx of 5 pink petals surrounding the purple corolla. The androecium contains 5 fertile stamens and 5 staminodes. The gynocium bears 5 slender, united styles [1). Flowers grow in axillary panicles, with joined petals, up to 8 mm in length, light red with purple center; erect inflorescences, panicles in leaf axils and on tips of sprouts , pink to purple, individual flowers up to 2.5 cm long [13]. [Fruit]: A large indehiscent berry, between 5-8 cm long, with a characteristic shape in its section which resembles a 5-pointed star. The colour is yellowish green, becoming orange-yellow when ripe. The fruit has a sweet-acid taste (oxalic acid). Each cell of the fruit contains 5 arillate seeds [1]. Up to 12 cm long, ovoid 5-ridged, yellow fruit with a star-shaped cross-section, containing 10 t0 12 seeds. The pulp of fresh fruit of cultivars is crisp and juicy, mildly acid, aromatic and refreshing. Wild forms have a

ripe, with 5 pronounced ribs. Many cultivars have been produced, flowering and fruiting continue throughout the year [6].

I. Wood properties: The wood is whitish, soft and can be used as firewood.

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : A native of tropical Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia, introduced in China, India, Burma, Indochina, Thailand, Philippines, Australia; exotic in South America, West Indian Islands, Africa and United States of America [1,26). It spread to many tropical countries as ornamental and fruit tree, but increasingly it is also planted in subtropical regions [1].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A. carambola is planted throughout the tropics, from low to medium altitude up to 900 m elevation a.s.l. It tolerates short cold periods, but young plants will die under frost. A. carambola prefers a seasonal humid climate with a drier season but not drought. It can grow on slightly acid soil but does not tolerate flooding or saline soils. [6]

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higher content of oxalic acid making them more sour.[13]. Fruit is 12x6 cm, shiny yellow-green when

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Tolerates slightly acid soil but not stagnant water or saline soil. A. carambola prefers deep, welldrained clay loams but can grow successfully on sandy soils and heavy clays [26].

N. Utilization and importance : Averrhoa carambola has been spread to many countries, but principally as an ornamental tree, it appears that its value as a fruit tree has been less important [26]. [Wood]: Wood only suitable as fuelwood, because of lack of larger dimensions. The soft, whitish wood is sometimes used for making small implements [26]. [ Non-Wood]: Fruit consumed fresh or processed as jam, curries or pickled [19], fruit juice added to fruit salad to impart sweet-sour flavour [13]. Unripe fruit of A. carambola contains potassium oxalate, which is used in dyeing [26]. Fruit and fruit juice are used as laxative based on the content of oxalic acid [1]; it is also used in traditional medicine for skin disorders and fevers [26]. [Other]; The acid fruit juice is

used in some countries for cleaning rusty metal, (acid dissolves

corroded spots), and removing spots from linnen textiles [1]. Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

extracted oil used in manufacture of cosmetcs [6].

3

O. Cambodian wood classification : [not included

P. Silviculture and management : A. carambola is insect pollinated, the pollinators being honeybees and Diptera species. Flowering continues throughout the year and fruit is available most of the year. Seedling varieties should crop in 3-8 years, selected grafted varieties in only 1-2 years [26]. When young, A. carambola is delicate and requires careful attention. Because it is a fast-growing tree, it requires pruning and thinning of excess fruit at an early stage. Good crops are harvested from grafted varieties when they are 2-3 years old. Yields of up to 900 kg/ha and year are common for 10-year-old trees [26].

Q. Propagation : Seed storage behaviour is intermediate. The lowest safe moisture content is 12.3%; further desiccation reduces viability. Cool temperatures damage the seeds. Viability can be maintained for 6 months with partially dried seeds at 5ºC. There are approximately 15, 000 seeds/kg [26].

Propagated by seed, by layering and also by budding on 1-year-old seedlings. The seedlings are transplanted into polyethylene bags and, after 6-12 months in the nursery, outplanted with 4 m x 6 m spacing. The species flowers and fruits continuously provided the dry season is not too severe [1].

R. Hazards and protection : Caterpillars (Diacotrichia, Pingasa and Pseudoterpna) attack the flowers and young leaves. A. carambola fruit suffers from fruit fly maggots, particularly Dacus dorsalis (Southeast Asia), and fruitpiercing moth (Othreis spp., Australia); bagging prevents infestation. Leaf spot (Cercospora averrhoa) and pink diseases (Corticium) affect the tree in Southeast Asia, but postharvest rots are more serious: the slightest blemish invites infection by Ceratocystis, Colletotrichum, Dothoriella and Phomopsis fungi [26].

S. Conservation : not a threatened species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native species all over Southeast Asia, but inroduced to many other tropical and subtropical countries

W. Further readings5 : Nicholson B.E, Harrison S.G, Masefield G.B & Wallis M. 1969. The Oxford Book of Food Plants. Oxford University Press. Perry LM. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia : attributed properties and uses. MIT Press. South East Asia. Popenoe W. 1974. Manual of the tropical and subtropical fruits. The Macmillann Company. Rice RP, Rice LW, Tindall HD. 1987. Fruit and vegetable production in warm climates. Macmillan Press, London. Sedgley M, Griffin AR. 1989. Sexual reproduction of tree crops. Academic Press. London. Tankard G. 1987. Tropical fruit. A guide to growing and using exotic fruits. Viking O’Neil. Timyan J. 1996. Bwa Yo: important trees of Haiti. South-East Consortium for International Development. Washington D.C. Verheij EWM, Coronel RE (eds.). 1991. Plant Resources of South East Asia No 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. Williams R.O & OBE. 1949. The useful and ornamental plants in Zanzibar and Pemba. Zanzibar Protectorate.

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V. Miscellaneous4 :

4

X. References: 1)

FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6)

Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,

Bangkok, 234 pp.

9)

Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide.

Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

13)

Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical

Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

19)

Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

5

20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD).

26)

World Agroforestry Centre

http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source).

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Azadirachta indica A. Juss]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Azadirachta indica A. Juss] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³ ³

Azadirachta indica A. Juss neem [2], cornucopia, Indian cedar, Indian lilac, margosa tree, neem tree [8]

C. Synonym

³

Antelaea azadirachta (L.) Adelb., Azadirachta indica var. siamensis Valenton, Azedarach fraxinifolia Moench, Melia azadirachta L., Melia fraxinifolia Adelb., Melia indica (A. Juss.) Brandis, Melia pinnata Stokes [5]

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D. Other1

1

³

neem (Trade name) [8] - kinin (Ethiopia) [8] - neem, nim (Arabia) [8] - nim, nimgach (Bangladesh) [8] bowtamaka, tamabin, tamaka, tamar, tamarkha, thinboro (Myanmar) [8] - bevu, kohomba, nimba (China:Cantonese) [8] - azadirac de l’Inde, margosier, margousier, neem, nim (France) [8] - balnimb, neem, nim, nind, nimba (India) [8] - imba, intaran, membha, mempheuh, mimba, mind (Indonesia) [8] - ka dao, kadau (Laos) [8] - baypay, mambu, sadu, veppam (Malaysia) [8] - neem (Nepal) [8] - mkilifi, mwarubaini, mwarubaini kamili (East Africa) [8] - vembu, vepa, veppam, veppu (Sri Lanka) [8] - cha-tang, kadao, khwinin, sadao, sadao India, saliam (Thailand) [8] s[aaf]u d[aa]u, saafu daau, sเu-dเu (Vietnam) [8]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

esþA Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sdau [8] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Rutales Family: Meliaceae Gunus: Azadirachta

Species: Azadirachta indic Source :[ 5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General] Medium-size tree with a height of 15-20 m. Bole, short (2-5 m long) with a DBH up to 100 cm, and a girth of 1.5-3.5 m. Crown rounded or erect oval with wide spreading branches up to 15-20 m diameter in old, free-standing trees. The rooting system consists of a strong taproot and welldeveloped laterals. "Superficial laterals may extend 18 m. VAMs (vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae) are associated with the rootlets" [9]. [Bark]: The bark is moderately thick (1.25-2.5 cm), grey to reddish-brown. The outer rind is rough, woody, very much fissured, often peeling in thick slices. The sap is grayish-white. [Leaves]: The leaves are unpaired pinnate, 20-40 cm long, crowded towards the ends of the branches. Medium to dark green leaflets 9-15 but up to 31, sub-opposite, obliquely lanceolate (=spear-shaped) or hooked, acuminate (=with a pointed tip), coarsely serrate (=saw-like, with notched edges) and 3-8 cm long. The terminal leaflet is often missing. Leaf stalk very short, young leaves are reddish to purple. [Flowers]: The inflorescences bear about 150 flowers, occasionally 250. The flower is white, fragrant, 4-6 mm long and 8-11 wide in branched hairless axillary, more or less drooping panicles up to 25 cm long. Calyx 5 and petals (=inner flower leaves) 5 (5 mm by 2) spoon shaped to oblong, slightly hairy outside. Anthers 10, ovary (=female organ) hairless, 3-celled. The nectary is annular and fused at the

[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is hairless and olive-like 1.4-2.8 x 1.0-1.5 cm when mature and egg-shaped to oblong, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Green when young, greenish-yellow to yellowish-red when ripe. Exocarp thin, bittersweet mesocarp yellowish-white and very fibrous, 0.3-0.5 cm thick. The white, hard endocarp of the seed encloses 1, rarely 2 and very rarely 3 elongated seeds having a brown testa. They are 0.9-2.2 x 0.5-0.8 cm; with kernels 0.8-1.6 x 0.4-0.5 cm. [2, 9]

I. Wood properties: Heartwood reddish, hard and durable. The density of the wood is 0.72-0.93 g/cm³ at 12% moisture content [8]. It shows some characteristics of a cabinetry wood, its grain is rough and does not polish well. The wood is also tolerant against termites. [8, 9]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 28°N to 30°S [8]. A. indica is said to grow ‘almost anywhere’ in the lowland tropics. "It is considered to be native to dry areas in India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and China. It is cultivated as well as naturalized in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia" [5]. It occurs generally in dry forests, deciduous forests, moist forests and mixed forests. In India and

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base of the ovary. It flowers from April to May (Pakistan).

2

Pakistan, A. indica occurs naturally in mixed dry deciduous- and thorn forests with Acacia spp. and Dalbergia sissoo. "In Indonesia, it is naturalized in lowland monsoon forest. In Africa, it is found in evergreen forest and in dry deciduous forest" [8]. It is not a forest dweller but grows where there has been human interaction. Under natural conditions, it does not grow gregariously. [5, 8, 9]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Occurs at an altitude of 0-1,500 m a.s.l. [5] with an optimum at 700-800 m a.s.l. [9] mainly on plains and low-lying undulating land (but not montane areas) in the drier tropical and subtropical zones. Mean annual rainfall: 400-1,200 mm [8] (450-1,500 mm [2]). "With less than 400 mm it depends on ground water and under such conditions can survive with ca. 130 mm" [9]. It tolerates long dry seasons (1-8 months [5]). Mean annual temperature: 21-32°C [9]. Temperature range: 9.5-37°C [2] (4-50°C [9]). Temperatures below 4°C may result in death of the plant. "In north Pakistan mature trees seem better adapted to low temperatures, even tolerating 0°C" [9]. "Adult A. indica tolerates some frost, but seedlings are more sensitive. A. indica requires large amounts of light, but it tolerates fairly heavy shade during the first few years" [8]. [5, 8, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

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M. soil and site conditions :

3

A. indica grows on a wide variety of neutral to alkaline soils but performs better than most species on shallow, stony, sandy soils, or in places where there is a hard calcareous or clay pan not far below the surface. It thrives best on well-drained, deep sandy soils. Optimum pH is 6.2-7.0 [9, 8] (5-7 [2]) with extremes of 5.9-10.0 [9]. "It can grow on alkaline or saline soils but does not tolerate seasonally waterlogged soils or deep sands with deep water table (It does not grow on saline soils [2]. In Mogadishu, Somalia, tubewell irrigation water for neem seedlings is saline (EC 4.25 dS/m, total solids 2763 mg/l)" [9]. [2, 8, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Used for fuelwood, timber (very durable wood), excellent for charcoal [2]. Sawn wood, posts, fences, wooden tools, shipbuilding and construction. [2, 8] [Non-wood]: A. indica oil has long been produced in Asia on an industrial scale for soaps, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and other non-edible products. The seed oil yield is sometimes as high as 50% of the weight of the kernel. Neem oil is valued at about US$ 700/t (1990) [7]. Seeds from the neem tree contain a compound called azadirachtin. Extracts can be made from leaves and other tissues, but the

seeds contain the highest concentrations of the compound. People use azadirachtin along with other neem compounds to make pesticides. Such pesticides are environmentally safe and can help control more than 250 pests, including aphids, mites, locusts and stem borers on young plants. These homemade remedies are often very effective in repelling pests or acting on insects as a feeding deterrent. The strength of homemade preparations can vary due to the concentration of azadirachtin and other compounds in the seed, which can in turn depends on the genetic source of the seeds. Manufacturers also use neem tree parts in such products as soap, toothpaste, and acne ointment. The bark has high tannin content (12-14%) [2]. Leaves are poor in fodder but valued in parts of India. [2, 7, 8]. [Others]: Erosion control: "Being drought resistant with a well-developed root system capable of extracting nutrient from the lower soil levels, it is a suitable tree for dune-fixation. The large crown of A. indica makes it an effective shade and shelter tree, planted widely as an avenue tree in towns and villages and along roads in many tropical countries. Because of its low branching, it is a valuable asset for use as a windbreak" [8]. Soil improver: "Farmers in India use neem cake (the residue left after extracting oil from the seeds) as an organic manure and soil amendment. It is believed to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers by reducing the rate of nitrification and inhibiting soil pests including nematodes, fungi, and insects. A. indica leaves and small twigs are used as mulch and green manure" [8]. Agroforestry: "Intercropping A. indica with pearl millet, Pennisetum glaucum, has given good results in

[8]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: A. indica can be widely grown in the lowland tropics. Under natural conditions, it does not grow gregariously. It occurs generally in dry forests, deciduous forests, moist forests and mixed forests. [8] [Management]:

Weeding of plantations in dry areas is essential, as the tree cannot withstand

competition, especially from grasses. It responds well to chemical and organic fertilizers. Trees coppice freely with a rapid regeneration of 5-11 m in 8 years [2] and early growth from coppice is faster than growth from seedlings. A. indica withstands pollarding well, but seed production is adversely affected when trees are lopped for fodder. The best economic rotation for wood production is considered to be 23 years [5]. [5, 8]

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India" [8].

4

Q. Propagation : A. indica is propagated primarily through seed. The seed weight is about 550g/1,000 seeds [9] with a considerable variation. Seeds are recalcitrant and are shed at relatively high moisture content, making them susceptible to dehydration and chilling injuries. They have a short viability of 3-4 weeks [5]. Seeds stored at 4°C [5] show a high germination percentage. To maintain viability of the seeds, the drupes must be cleaned properly by depulping, either manually or mechanically under a stream of water to provide stones. Drying stones in shade is the most appropriate method although drying in the sun, an oven or vacuum provides acceptable results more quickly. Stones give better germination rates than seeds. A. indica is raised in the nursery and planted out as potted plants or seedlings. Direct sowing of fresh seeds in the shelter of existing vegetation has also proved successful. No seed pretreatment is required, although depulping and cleaning of seeds considerably improves the germination rate. Mature seeds germinate within a week, with a germination percentage of 75-90% [8]. Vegetative propagation is done by cuttings, air layering, grafting, marcotting, tissue culture. Stands are established by using stump plants, direct sowing, planting stock, wildlings. [5, 8, 9]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Recorded insect pests are Aonidiella orientalis and Solenopsis sp. [5] [Diseases]: Foliage diseases: The fungus Odium azadirachtae causes a powdery mildew of neem foliage and

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several bacteria, including Pseudomonas viticola, P. azadirachtae and Xanthomonas azadirachtii,

5

cause leaf spot diseases. Root diseases: Root rot is caused by the fungus Ganoderma lucidum. Sporadic infections occur in young plantings of this species when stumps and roots of the previous tree crop are not removed from the site. The fungus attacks the sapwood and causes a white spongy rot. Symptoms of infection are pale, thin foliage and branch dieback. Fruiting bodies often occur at the base of the stem . Stem diseases: A. indica is one of many plants affected by pink disease caused by the fungus Corticium salmonicolor. The earliest sign of infection is the presence of white or pink pustules on dead bark. A conspicuous pink layer of fungus mycelium spreads over the bark. In time, the bark may be entirely destroyed and the outer layers of wood killed. Branches are killed quickly causing the foliage to wilt and turn black. Other fungus diseases include Fusarium oxysporum, Glomerella cingulata, Pseudocercospora subsessilis. [5]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : No information available.

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]:

[Native] : India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Thailand [2, 8]

[Introduced] : Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Barbados, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia [1], Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, French Guiana, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Rwanda, Sao Tome et Principe, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan, Surinam, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Uganda, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Virgin Islands (US), Zambia, Zimbabwe [8]

[Leaf properites]: "Leaves contain 12.4-18.3% crude protein, 11.4-23.1 crude fiber, 43.3-66.6 N-free extract, 2.27-6.24 ether extract, 7.7-8.4 total ash, 0.89-3.96 calcium and 0.1-0.3% phosphorus" [9].

W. Further readings5 : Boa E.R. (1995) A Guide to the Identification of Diseases and Pests of Neem (Azadirachta indica) [9] Childs FJ et.al. 2001. Improvement of Neem and its potential benefits to poor farmers. HYDRA Publishing. [9] Faridah Hanum I, van der Maesen LJG (eds.). 1997. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11. Auxillary Plants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. [9] Hocking D. 1993. Trees for Drylands. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. [9] ICRAF. 1992. A selection of useful trees and shrubs for Kenya: Notes on their identification, propagation and management for use by farming and pastoral communities. ICRAF. [9] National Research Council. 1992. Neem. A tree for solving global problems. National Academy Press, Washington D. C. [9]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

V. Miscellaneous4 :

6

Perry LM. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia : attributed properties and uses. MIT Press. South East Asia. [9] Read M.D. French J.H. (1993) Genetic improvement of neem: strategies for the future. [9] Schmutterer H. (1995) The Neem Tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and Other Meliaceous Plants. Sources of unique natural products for integrated pest management, medicine, industry and other purposes. [9] Stoney C. 1998. Use of neem as a biological pest control agent. A publication of the Forest, Farm, and Community Tree Network (FACT Net). Winrock International, Morrilton, Arkansas, USA. [9] Tewari D.N. Gahlot R.P.S. - Ed. (1992) Monograph on neem. [9]

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

7

[4] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA. [5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [7] World Book 2004 (Deluxe) [8] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp. (Internet source). [9] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep. (Internet source).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.] ³

Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. [4].

B. English name (s)

³

Burmese grape[4,6, 17],

C. Synonym

³

Baccaurea sapida (Roxb.) Muell. Arg., B. cauliflora Lour., B.

A. Latin name

(s)

oxycarpa Gagnep., Pierardia sapida Roxb., B. wrayi King ex Hook.f.[2,4,8,17].

D. Other1

³

phnkiew (Cambodia); kanazo (burma); mafai setambun, tajam molek (Indonesia); pupor, tampoi, tempui setambun, tajam molek, (Malaysia-Peninsular); fái (Laos); mafai, mafai farang, mafai ka, omfai, hamkang,khi mi,khrua sae, pha yio (Thailand-NE); giau gia dat, giau tien, dz[aa]u, mi[ee]n, dz[uw] [ows]i, gi[aa]lu, ti[ee]n d[aa]lt, Dâu quà nhon (Vietnam) [2,8,17,27].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

1

ep¶óv Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phni:ëw [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Euphorbiales/Malphigiales [27] Family: Euphorbiaceae/Phyllanthaceae [27] Gunus: Baccaurea Lour. Species: Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. Source :[4 ; 11 ; 27]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: An evergreen tree 10-15 m high and 20-30 cm in diameter, branches covered with appressed velvety pubescence [2]. Tree, 10-20 m tall [4]; small evergreen tree up to 10 m high, with dense spreading crown and crooked trunk, becoming slightly fluted at base; branching pattern strongly sympodial [5]. Trees up to 15 m high, up to 40 cm diameter [8]. [Bark]: Pale creamy or orange-brown, smooth or slightly flaking, thin [5]. Bark-orange-brown, inner bark softly fibrous, often reddish-brown. Branches (sub)-glabrous. Crown rather dense [8]. [Leaves]: Simple, alternate, clustered at the tip of branchlets, obovate or lanceolate, rarely falcate, when dry red-fulvous, papyraceous. Lateral nerves 6-8 pairs, stipules 5-6 mm long, velvety, pubescent, early caducous [2]. Leaf 10-22 x 5-10 cm, spirally-clustered at intervals along twigs, narrowly elliptic or obovate with shortly tapering tip and pointed base, untoothed or with scattered shallow teeth near the top. Young leaves reddish, finely brown hairy, mature leaves dark green and shiny above, completely smooth. 611 pairs of arched side-veins, joined at margin, raised above. Stalks 3-7 cm long and slender, swollen at top [5]. Blade elliptic to obovate, 7.0-25.5 by 3.0-8.8 cm, papery, base attenuate to cuneate, margin entire, apex cuspidate, upper surface glabrous, except for midrib, lower surface glabrous, veins 4-9 per side. Petioles 1-5 cm long, kneed at both ends. Stipules 2.5-6.0 mm, pubescent, caducous [8.] [Flowers]: Inflorescences are axillary to cauliflorous spikes, densely covered with red fulvous

short, pubescent. Male flower 1 mm wide, calyx obovoid, hat-shaped, 1.5 mm long or more. Stamens 6-7, anther 0.4 mm, free; filaments 0.5- 0.9 mm long, straight. Pistillode 0.6 mm high, terete. Female inflorescence about 16 cm long, reddisch-fulvous pubescent. Bracts triangular, 2 mm long. Flower 3 mm long [2]. Flower small, pale orange or yellow-green, sometimes with violet tinge, male and female flowers on different trees. Males in slender, unbranched clusters, slightly behind leaves, up to 10 cm long. Individual flowers with short stalks and lanceolate bracts at base, 4 overlapping sepals, ± 2 mm, incurved tips, densely grey hairy, no petals; 4-8 free stamens. Females in longer, drooping clusters on older branches and on main trunk, up to 30 cm long. Individual flowers without stalks, sepals ± 6 mm. Style short with forked stigmas, ovary brown, hairy [5]. Inflorescences axillary to cauliflorous racemes; densely covered with red-fulvous pubescence, bracts triangular, 1.5-4.0 mm long. Male inflorescence up to 15.5 cm long, usually 3 flowers per bract. Male flowers 1.1-4.0 mm diameter, yellow, pedicel 0.8-2.6 mm long; sepals 4 or 5, different in shape, 1.02.4 mm long, stamens 5-9, free, filaments 0.5-0.9 mm long, straight. Female inflorescence just below the leaves or really cauliflorous, up to 16 cm long, 1-3 flowers per bract. Female flowers 3-8 mm in diameter, yellow; pedicel 1.5-3.0 mm long, sepals 4 or 5, elliptic, 3.5-5.0 mm long; ovary (2-) or 3- or 4-locular, ovules 2 per locule, stigmas sessile, not lobed [8].

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pubescence. Male inflorescence 4-16 cm long, narrowly thyrsoid, usually 3-flowered. Pedicel very

2

[Fruit]: A berry, ovoid, red when mature, 2.2-3.0 cm high, 1-2 cm wide. Seeds 1-2, 10 mm long and 46 mm thick, red [2]. Fruit 2.5-3.5 cm, pale orange, ripening reddish or purplish, ovoid or ellipsoid, hanging in long, string-like clusters from older branches and main trunk. Outer layer leathery, smooth or indistinctly hairy, eventually splitting. 2-4 large seeds surrounded by a juicy translucent or pinkish pulp [5]. Fruits globose to ovoid berries, 19-32 by 14-25 mm, red to orange to pink to purplish outside, creamy inside, (sub)glabrous outside. Seeds 9-15 by 9-11 mm, arillode white [8]. Fruit oval, yellowish, pinkish to bright red, or purple, 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter, glabrous, with 2-4 large, purple-red seeds., with white aril [27]. Importance of frit of Baccaurea marginal, used and sold locally [27]. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent, leafy, often bilobed; hypocotyl elongated; first pair of leaves opposite or alternate, subsequent ones arranged spirally [17]. Flowering in March-April, fruiting in August-September [2,8,]. In Shishuangbanna, Yunnan Province of china, people flock to the Botanical Garden to see the Baccaurea tress full of fruit, in green, yellow or red , in such great number that the branches are bending down. The "famous wild tropical (fruit) tree" is evergreen, up to 12 m highwith up to 60 cm diameter…" [27].

I. Wood properties: Baccaurea species yield a medium-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 630-950 kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood yellowish brown, darkening to brown with an orange-yellow to purple-red tinge, not clearly differentiated from the sapwood. Grain straight or interlocked, texture moderately fine and uneven due to wide rays, wood with slight silver grain on quarter-sawn surface. Growth rings indistinct, sometimes suggested by darker colored tissue; vessels moderately small to medium-sized,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

angular, solitary and in radial multiples of 2-4(-more), tyloses sparse; parenchyma abundant,

3

apotracheal diffuse-in-aggregates; rays of 2 kinds, very fine or medium-sized to moderately broad; ripple marks absent. Shrinkage is moderate and the wood dries moderately slowly without serious degrade. The wood is moderately hard and moderately strong. It is reputed to be durable and can be treated with preservative [17]. As the supply of Baccaurea timber is limited the wood is traded and utilized only on a local scale [17].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Baccaurea ramiflora occurs from India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, to Burma, ChinaCanton/Yunnan/Hainan, Indochina, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, in dense tropical evergreen or semi-deciduous forests; along stream banks, in valleys usually mixed with Pometia pinnata, Dracontomelum mangiferum, Deutzianthus tonkinensis and Phoebe sp. [2,8]. A tree growing in the dense forests of tropical Asia [4]. A common understory tree of fire-free forests [5]. It is found in primary and secondary rain forests, below 1000 m [8]. There are about 55 Baccaurea species occuring from India to Indochina, southern China, Andaman Islands, Thailand, throughout the Malesian region, and towards Pacific Islands [17]. In southern China it occurs in mountain valley forest and on hill sides [27]..

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A tree of tropical climate, occurs below 1000 m [2,8]; a neutral tree, tending towards shadedemanding [2]. Baccaurea species are generally uncommon, but may locally occur as an important element of the lower storey of primary lowland rain forests [5]. Found in well drained as well as swampy sites up to 1000 (-1800) m altitude, on a wide range of soils in primary and secondary evergreen rain forest, kerangas and peat-swamp forest [17].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Occuring on wide range of soils, alluvial sediment, ferrallitic or sandy soils with a medium to deep layer, moist and well drained; along stream banks [2, 8, 17].Often cultivated on sand, granite, moist and well-drained, in valleys or on hill sides [8,17].

N. Utilization and importance : Baccaurea is widely cultivated only in INdia and Malaysia. It is primarily and fruit tree which, according to soil, climate and ecological environment, may grow into a tree over 20 m high or remain a small tree not higher than [Wood]: The wood is valuable and used in construction, manufacturing of household utensils [2,8].

[Non-Wood]: The trees are also planted as shade trees or as support tree in rattan cultivation [6]. Fruits are sour-sweet, edible but their quality is not as good as those of Baccaurea harmandii [2]. Several Baccaurea species are frequently cultivated for their generally sour-tasting fruits: B. dulcis, B. motleyana, B. racemosa and B. ramiflora. Most other species have edible but less tasty fruits, also the flowers are edible [19]. The arillode is edible, with a taste between sweet and sour [8]. Baccaurea species are also considered good support trees for rattan cultivation. The cultivated species are used as shade and roadside trees. The bark of a few species, together with other ingredients is used for dyeing or to coloring silk yellow, red or mauve. The bark is also applied to treat skin diseases and inflammation of eyes [4,17]. Leaves were analyzed in search of medicinal application and bio-active phenols were identified [27]. A

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

The excellent wood is used for posts in house and boat construction and furniture manufacture[4].

4

Q. Propagation : Baccaurea can be propagated by seed but some fruit-producing species are also vegetatively propagated by air-layering of female trees. Seeds of several species usually germinate after 2-6 weeks with a rate of over 65%. The germination rate of seed sown with adhering pulp is less predictable and may range from 3-100% in approximately the same time. [17]

R. Hazards and protection : Genetic erosion is feared in some of the fruit-producing species but no impact is seen from harvesting timber[17].

S. Conservation :

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : East and Southeast Asia, native

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of sSoutheast Asia.No.2, Edible fruits Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

and nuts. Pudoc, Wageneingen, 446 pp.

5

Bois, D 1922-27: Plantes alimentaires. 4 vos. Lechevalier, Paris. Burkill, IH 1966: A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 2 vols., Min. of Agriculture and Co-Operatives; Kuala Lumpur. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research 1948-76. The Wealth of India. Raw Materials. ii vols., 2nd Ed. 1985. Publications and Information Directorate CSIR, New Delhi.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

5)

Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest

Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

6)

Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,

Bangkok, 234 pp.

8)

Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field

guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands

16)

Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. and W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of

655 pp.

17)

Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

18)

Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in Khmer and

English) Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 97 pp.

19)

Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef

Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

27)

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia,

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Bombax ceiba L]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Bombax ceiba L] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Bombax ceiba L

³

Indian bombax, red cotton tree, silk cotton tree [2], red silk cotton [5], cotton wood [13]

C. Synonym

³

Gossampinus heptaphylla Bakh., Bombax malabaricum DC. [1], Bombax malabaricum DC., Gossampinus malabarica (DC.) Merr., Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endl. [2], Bombax malabricum Linn. [5], Bombax thorelii Gagnep. [12]

D. Other1

³

fromager, faux kapokier, kapokier du Malabar (France) [2, 5, 11] - simul (Bangladesh) [2] - kapok kalingi, kapuk hutan, randu agung (Indonesia) [2] - borla, boruga, bouro, burajal, bural, burga, burgu, buroh, buruga, ilavu, ilavum, kantesavar, kantysenbal, mocha, mullilapoola, mullilavu, pagun, parutte, poola, ragat-senbal, rokto-simul, salmali, saur, sauri, sawar, sayar, semal, semul, senur, shemolo, shevari, shimul, shirlan, simal, simalo, simbal, simlo, somr, tula, vamadruma (India) [2] - katu-imbul (Sri Lanka) [2] -

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

letpan (Myanmar) - kapok, tambaluang (Malaysia) [2] -

1

bombax, kapok (Papua New Guinea) [2] - babui-gubat, bobor, bubui-gubat, malabulak, tag-linau, taglinan, taroktok (Philippines) [2] - ngui, ngui ban (Thailand) [2] - ngiu pa, ngiu deng (Laos) [12] - gao, moc mien (Vietnam) [12]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

rka Source: [6]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ ro-ka [6] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae

Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Bombacaceae Gunus: Bombax Species: Bombax Ceiba L. Source :[ 2]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Large deciduous tree up to 30-35 m [3, 10] tall (-45 m [2], 10-20 m [5, 11]) with a large and lax spreading crown. The bole is cylindrical and straight with a DBH of up to 150 cm [2] (340 cm [12]) and covered with moderately prominent buttresses. Side branches are horizontal and straight in young trees, usually in whorles, often as thick as the central trunk, giving the tree a layered appearance. Branchlets are usually covered with stout prickles, although smooth-barked variants are also known. The tuberous roots contain mucilaginous matter (a cell tissue that swells in contact with water) that may be responsible for the remarkable hardiness in this species. [Bark]: The bark is pale brownish grey, ash grey or cream colored, studded with sharp conical thorns when young and rough with irregular cracks but becoming smooth when old.

of 12-20 x 5-8 cm [2] (8-15 x 4-5 cm [3]), are elliptic, kidney- or spear-shaped, tapering at both ends. The leaf surface is completely smooth or partly hairy with a leaflet stalk, 1-2 cm short [2] (1.5-2.5 cm [3]) and 15 pairs of lateral nerves. The main stalk is 15-25 cm [2] in length (10-19 cm [3]). In SouthEast Asia, the leaves turn yellow and begin to fall in December. Then the trees are leafless for approximately 3-4 months until foliage appears in March-April [2]. [Flowers]:

B. ceiba generally produces flowers after 8-10 years of growth [2]. The flowers are

hermaphrodite and protandrous (=producing pollen before the female organs are receptive), with 3 floral morphs, yellow, red and intermediate crimson. The flowers are solitary, sometimes paired, usually towards the apex of leafless branchlets, 5-12 cm in length [2] (8-10 cm [3]). Flower stalk 1-1.5 cm in length [2], hairless. Calyx thick, 1.5-3.5 x 2-5 cm [2] (1.5-2 cm [3]), bright green, cup shaped with 5 short, pointed lobes [3] (2-4 lobes [2]), hairless outside. Inner flower leaves (=petals) bright red (yellow and orange are also recorded), 4.5-11 x 1.8-4 cm [2], thick and fleshy, elliptic-opposite eggshaped, pointed and hairy outside towards the apex. The stamens (=male organs) are approximately 80 in 3 whorls [2] (50 in 2 whorls [3]), the outer whorl in 5 fascicles of 10 each, the middle whorl consist of 20 and inner whorl of 10, filaments 3-7 cm in length, basally fused to form a short tube, filaments of innermost whorl slightly longer than the outer whorls. The ovary (=female organ) is 5celled, style filiform, 5-lobed. The flowers appear in February-March [7] (December-February [2], India: March-April [9], Laos/Vietnam: February to April [12]) when the tree is usually leafless.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, digitately compound with 5-9 leaflets [2]. The leaflets have a size

2

[Fruits]: Fruits ripen from March to May [2, 7] (India: April [9], Laos/Vietnam: May-July [12]). The fruit (=capsule) is oblong, straight and hairless, 9-15 x 2.5-3.5 cm [2] (10-17 x 4-6 cm [3]), without ridges but often with 5 shallow grooves. Seeds are many, smooth and oily, 0.5 cm [2] in length, embedded in white silky floss. [2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]

I. Wood properties: The wood of B. ceiba is creamy or pinkish-white, very soft and very light with an air-dry density of about 0.385 g/cm³, with a straight grain and coarse texture. The heartwood is usually absent, however, in some logs occasionally the central portion is reddish-brown. The wood is not durable if exposed, but fairly durable under cover and lasts well under water. After felling, the timber requires cutting and drying as soon as possible, because it is susceptible to sap stain and decay. It is also not resistant to termites. [2, 10]

J. Geographic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 33°N to 24°S [2]. Bombax ceiba is a common tree found along the streets of towns and provinces in Cambodia and in other countries of South- and Southeast-Asia. It also grows abundantly in deciduous forests, mixed deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, evergreen rain forests and savanna woodlands from the lowland to high elevations [10] (lowland to mid elevations [8]). It can also be commonly found on tank bunds or on agricultural boundaries. In Vietnam it is found Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

scattered in natural forest. In Thailand it is rather uncommon in the forest.

3

[2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 12]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : The tree grows from sea level up to 1,200 m in altitude [2] (0-800 m [10, 12]). In its natural habitat rainfall is bimodal (500-4,500 mm/year) and best growth is obtained in regions where the dry season lasts less than 5 months [2]. However, it is not severely affected by drought and, once established, it is fire resistant due to its thick bark. The mean annual temperature is 20-30ºC, the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month 30-37ºC and the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month 10-24ºC. It is resistant to slight frost, the absolute minimum temperature however is -2ºC. Temporary flooding is also tolerated. [2, 3, 10]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Good growth of this species is obtained in deep young alluvial soils of valleys and hill slopes having a considerable portion of sandy loam or sand with a good drainage but good moisture supply.

Especially soil derived from granite is recommended. It is also found on stony sandstone soils and on iron rich lateritic soils. However, it is growing in a wide variety of situations and is found on almost all soil types except heavy clay soils, marshy soils and soils of mined limestone regions. Soils with an acid to neutral pH are suitable. Suitable soil types include acid soils, alluvial soils, ferralsols, granite soils, grassland soils, lateritic soils, sandstone soils, sandy soils, silty soils, tropical soils and ultisols. [2, 7, 9, 10, 12]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Generally the wood is used for veneers, sawing boards, splints, packing cases, tea and rubber boxes, planking, building poles, fishing floats, fishing boats, dugouts, toys, scabbards, wooden shoes, coffins, well-curbs and fuelwood. Other common uses include boarding, shingles, brush handles, cheap plywood, light cooperage, musical instruments and frames. "In India the primary use of the wood is for match boxes and pencils" [2]. B. ceiba is also suitable for wood wool-cement board, mechanical and chemical pulp, fibre boards, particle boards and paper, however with only short fibers. [1, 2, 10, 12] [Non-wood]: B.ceiba is important as a tannin producing plant: The bark exudes a gum known as 'semul gum' or 'morcharus', which contains tannic and gallic acids. The gum may also be mixed with ashes and castor oil, and is used as a cement for caulking iron saucepans. The silky cotton floss (=seed cover) is suitable for stuffing lifebelts, cushions, pillows, upholstery and quills. Cushion and mattress are stuffed with the silky cotton floss and considered to be vermin proof. It is also used as an

pad the wood for planks and drums. The inner bark yields good fibers which are suitable for cordage. The oil obtained from the seeds is edible and is used as a substitute for cottonseed oil or soap for illumination. The seed cake is rich in protein and is an excellent cattle-feed. The tender leaves and flower buds are eaten as vegetables, and the young shoots and leaves are also used as fodder. In India, the prickles found on young stems are chewed as a substitute for betlenut (seed of Areca catechu). The flowers are made into a conserve by boiling with poppy seed, sugar and goats milk, or if dried and powdered are made into bread. Young roots have a high starch content, and are eaten either raw or roasted. The flowers are a good source for honey. Many parts are used for medicinal purposes: The flowers may be used as an astringent, as a cooling agent, or to treat cutaneous troubles. The young roots are used to treat cholera, tubercular fistula and as a diuretic, for cough, urinary complaints, nocturnal pollution, abdominal pain due to dysentery and a tonic for impotency. Even the gum is edible with astringent, tonic and demulcent properties, it is used to treat dysentery, haemoptysis in pulmonary tuberculosis, influenza and menorrhagia. "A decotion of the shoots have reputedly been used to treat ulcers of the palate, enlarged spleen (with roots of Moghania macrophylla, fruit of Terminalia chebula and borax), oedema (with Capparis zeylanica and Carissa carandas), corns on foot (with fenugreek), syphilis, leprosy and spider or snake bite. The exudations are effective in scabies (with mustard, tumeric and sulphur). The knots or stem are used on bleeding gums (cooked with bark of Zyzyphus rugosa and Ichnocarpus frutescens in mustard oil and given to

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insulating material for refrigerators and soundproofing. Staples of the fruits are sometimes used to

4

eat). The bark is reputedly used against cholera (with many plants), pleurisy, stings and as a diuretic" [5]. It is used in bandages for lasting fractures or given in infusion for toothache before visiting the dentist. "The seedlings have reputed antipyretic activity (ground with a few leaves of fistula and Semecarpus anacardium), carbuncle (with Vitis sp.), for white discharge in urine, haematuria (with Terminalia alata) and menorrhagia. Infusion of the leaves are reported to have hypotensive and hypoglycaemic properties" [5]. [1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11] [Others]: Bombax is fire resistant and used for revegetation in areas prone to fire. It has been introduced as an agroforestry species in homesteads and farmlands. It is also commonly planted as an ornamental tree due to its attractive flowers. [1, 2, 10, 12]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [4]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Bombax grows frequently in deciduous forests, mixed deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, evergreen rain forests and savanna woodlands from the lowland to high elevation [10] (lowland to mid elevation [8]). Typically this species is raised in plantations and agroforestry systems of the tropics but it is also grown as an ornamental tree. It produces root suckers, which survive only if

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the parent trees are young and many die after 2-3 years. B. ceiba coppices only as a young adult.

5

[Establishment]: This species is a fast growing strong light demander, requiring full growing space throughout its life for good development. In the beginning some aftercare is needed. Especially poor drainage may cause dieback in seedlings, so excessive watering should be avoided. After two years growth it is able to compete with weeds. In Assam (India) initial spacing is 6.7 x 6.7 m (225 plants/ha) [2], whereas a spacing of 2.7 x 2.7 m has been used in Kerala (India). In savannas, seedlings and saplings are repeatedly burnt back due to natural or man-made fires, but tend to recover well. In Java (Indonesia), Bombax has been interplanted with Bischofia javanica using a spacing of 1 x 3 m [13]. [Management]: Generally, 3-4 weedings are conducted in the first year and 2-3 in the second year [2]. Due to its light demanding characteristics, thinning is important in plantations and should be conducted in two or more stages during the rotation. In Assam (India), after the final thin spacings are approximately 13.4 x 13.4 m (55 trees/ha) [2]. In Kerala (India), where trees are planted at 2.7 x 2.7 m, two thinnings are conducted after 8 and 12 years growth [2]. However, no definite regime for thinning in mixed plantations has been reported. "In natural forests, B. ceiba is managed by selection felling, with an exploitable DBH of 38-77 cm and a felling cycle of 15-30 years [2]. In plantations the best system is clearfelling followed by artificial regeneration on a rotation of 25-40 years. The growth rate of B. ceiba under suitable conditions is very rapid, both in the natural forest and in plantations. On good sites, a DBH of 38 cm after 10 years growth and a 58 cm DBH after 20 years growth have been recorded [2]. Other sources mention a DBH of 20-30 cm after 12 years [10]. Mature trees with a DBH

of 57 cm may have a crown diameter of 12-15 m [2]. In Peshawar (Pakistan), stump-planted B. ceiba under irrigation reached approximately 25.2 cm DBH and 12.95 m in height after 7 years growth. "General standard volume tables for B. ceiba are given by Chaturvedi (1973) providing timber volumes (without bark), and under-bark volume of stem timber and branch timber" (see chapter: further readings [2]. [2, 8, 9, 10, 13]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection]: B. ceiba produces seeds regularly. Ripe fruits are collected before they open, generally in April-May [7] and are dried in the sun to open and release the seeds with cotton. Each fruit contains 200-400 seeds [2] which are highly viable and are dispersed by wind and will regenerate naturally on favourable sites. The seeds are separated from the floss by putting them in gunny bags and thrashing with a stick. Only fresh seeds are used for germination. They do not require any pretreatment. However, other sources recommend a soaking into water for 12 hours [9]. Approximately 100 dry capsules weigh 2 kg, and the number of seeds varies from 21,430-38,500/kg [2, 7]. [Propagation]: Propagation is done by direct sowing and transplanting of seedlings or stumps. In case of sowing germination, success rates vary from 14-75% [2] and plant survival rate is 6-31% [2], with highest rates found in fresh seeds. Stump planting is regarded as the best method to ensure success in plantations, both direct sowing and branch cuttings have low success rates. In nursery a standard bed of 12 x 1.2 m is sown with approximately 0.7 kg of seed in rows which are 15 cm apart. Standard

between 10-25 days. When seedlings attain 5 cm in height, they are transplanted into polythene bags of varying sizes filled with soil mixture which has been successfully used for planting. After one years growth, seedlings are suitable for transplanting or stump planting. Planting can be done in crow bar holes or in pits 30 x 30 cm [2] filled with well-worked soil. [2, 7, 9, 10]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Known insect pests are Dysdercus cingulatus, Lohita grandis and Tonica niviferana. [2] [Diseases]: Fungus diseases include Corticium rolfsii, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Macrophomina phaseolina, Myrothecium roridum and Thanatephorus cucumeris. [2] [Others]:"In heavily grazed areas, the saplings may successfully establish where they are protected from cattle. Dense weeds deter seedling development" [2].

S. Conservation : No information available.

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beds of this size are expected to produce approximately 3,000 seedlings. The germination period is

6

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Bangladesh, India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka [2] [Introduced]: Bhutan, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Tropical America

Thailand, [2, 8]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Alexander TG, Mary MV, Thomas TP, Balagopalan M, 1983. Influence of site factors in Bombax plantations. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 17:ii + 19 pp.; 12 ref. [2]

Chaturvedi AN, 1973. General standard volume tables for Semal (Bombax ceiba L.). Indian Forest Records, Silviculture, 12(7):1-7.

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[2]

7

Forest Research Institute, 1973. Indian Timbers - Semul. Information series. Dehra Dun, India: Forest Research Institute. [2]

Ghose TP, 1943. Indian Kapok. Indian Forester, 69:155-166. [2]

Nair NR, 1971. Commercial volume tables for the forest trees of Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India: Kerala Forest Department. [2]

Nicolson DH, 1979. Nomenclature of Bombax, Ceiba (Bombacaceae) and Cochlospermum (Cochlospermaceae) and their type species. Taxon, 28:367-373. [2]

Robyns AG, 1963. A monographic study of the genera Bombax s. l. (Bombacaceae). [Essai de monographie du genere Bombax s. l. (Bombacaceae)], Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux., 83:1-316. [2]

Sehgal RN, Venkaiah K, Satish Kumar, Khosla PK, 1991. Variation in wood specific gravity in different morphoforms of Bombax ceiba Linn (Semul). Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science, 22(2):13-16; 16 ref [2]

Venkatesh CS, Arya RS, 1980. Establishment, management and productivity of Bombax ceiba L. grafted seed orchards. Indian Journal of Forestry, 3(2):103-110; [1 pl.]; 9 ref. [2]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[3] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[4] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of

[5] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[6] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species.

[7] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture. (Internet source).

[8] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgibin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=846002139&spd=4473&tx=PL. (Internet source).

[9] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/GenInfo.php. (Internet source)

[10] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[11] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Commercial Woods, unpublished.

8

[12] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[13] PROSEA, 1998: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (3) Timber trees: Lesser-known timbers.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[14] Petri, M (DED), 2006: Own observations.

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Borassus flabellifer L]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Borassus flabellifer L] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Borassus flabellifer L

³

fan palm, palmyrah, toddy, toddy palm, palmyra palm, wine palm, sea apple [1]

C. Synonym

³

Borassus flabelliformis L. (1774), Borassus sundaicus Becc. [1]

D. Other1

³

palmier à sucre, rondier, rônier, borasse (France) [1] - palmira (Portugal) [1] - Fächerpalme, Lontaropalme, Palmyrapalme (Germany) [1] - lontar, siwalan, tal, tala (Indonesia) [1] - palma da ventagli (Italy) [1] - tan bin (Myanmar) [1] - tan (Laos) [6] - wine palm (Philippines) [6] lontar, tah, tai (Malaysia) [1] - not, tan, tan-yai (Thailand) [1] loost, noost, thoost, thoost noot (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

etñat Source: [3]

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F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ thnaot, thnaôt [1], thnot [10] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Arecales Family: Arecaceae Gunus: Borassus Species: Borassus flabellifer Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General] A large, solitary and evergreen palm tree with a height of 25 m [1] (10-20 m [2], -30 m [5], 25-40 m [6]). It can become very old (over 150 years), but its economic lifetime is about 80 years [11]. Stem massive, straight, up to 1 m [6] in diameter at base, conical up to about 4 m [6] high, thereafter cylindrical and 40-50 cm [6] in diameter, occasionally branched, covered by leaf bases when young, rough and ringed with leaf scars when older, fringed at the base with a dense mass of long adventitious roots. Crown circular with fan shaped leaves. Under optimal ecological conditions 14 leaves unfurl per year, or one leaf per 26 days [11]. Less leaves are produced under marginal conditions (8 per year or 1 per 45 days). "The Borassus, occurring in Indonesia from East Java eastwards, differs slightly from B. flabellifer (Outer flower leaves (petals) in fruit imbricate at the base, absence of scales on the leaf blades, less branched male inflorescence) and has been described as a different species: B. sundaica Beccari" [6]. [Leaves]: The leaves (30-60 [5] per tree) are arranged spirally. Leaf-blade leathery, grey green, nearly round and flat to fan-shaped, 1-1.5 m [6] (1.3 m [5]) in diameter and folded along the midrib. The leaves are divided to the center into 60-80 regular, linear-spear-shaped, 0.6-1.2 m long [5], stiff singlefold segments that are about 3 cm broad at base. Leaf stalks are strong and grooved, 1-1.2 m long [5], black at the base and black-margined when young and edged with hard spines. [Flowers]: Inflorescence located between the leaves, with flower stalk, shorter than the leaves, the male and female dissimilar. Male and female inflorescences are carried on separate trees. The male inflorescence is massive, up to 2 m long, consisting of about 8 partial inflorescences of three small inflorescence axis each with are spike-like, fleshy, 30-45 cm long, bearing spirally arranged

about 30 flowers, exserted singly in succession from the pit mouth. Flowers 3-merous with 6 stamens (=male organs). Female inflorescence unbranched or with a single first order branch, covered with sheath-like reduced flower leaves. Flower stalk massive, fleshy, thicker than the male one, bearing large cupular bracts, the first few empty, the subsequent ones each subtending a single female flower with several empty reduced flower leaves above the flowers; flowers larger than male ones, 3-merous, tricarpellate. The palm starts flowering and fruiting 12-20 years after germination, usually in the dry season. Male palms begin to develop the inflorescence in November or December while the female ones commence one to two months later. Each palm may bear from eight to fifteen inflorescences per year. The male inflorescence lasts approximately 45 to 60 days and the female 60 to 70 days. (Flowering: March to April [8], February to April [9]). Fruiting: August to September [8] (May to October [9]). [Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is coconut-like, three-sided when young, becoming rounded or more or less oval, 12-15 cm wide [6] (17.5 cm [9]) and 1.5-2.5(-3) kg [6] in weight. The outer covering is smooth, thin and leathery of brown color turning dark purple to black after harvest. Inside is a juicy mass of long, tough, coarse, white fibers coated with yellow or orange fragrant pulp. Seeds are shallowly to deeply bilobed, pointed. Within the mature seed is a solid white kernel similar to coconut meat but much harder. When the fruit is very young, this kernel is hollow, soft as jelly, and translucent like ice,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

overlapping reduced flower leaves, fused laterally and distally to form large pits, each containing

2

and is accompanied by a watery liquid, sweetish and potable. Each palm may bear 8-15 bunches of fruit with a total of about 80 pieces of fruit per year. [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 11]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The lowest 10 m of the trunk has hard and strong wood which is heavy, very durable, with an air dry density of 1.02-1.14 g/cm³. Very resistant to termites, insect borers and decay fungi. [1, 6]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 25°N to 30°S. B.flabellifer is indigenous or naturalized throughout tropical and subtropical South and Southeast Asia. It is particularly abundant in India, Myanmar and Cambodia, where it is frequently planted. It is occupying large areas of wasteland, forming pure crops in the drier parts of its geographical range, where the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merrill) and the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) cannot compete, or it is intermixed with the wild date palm (e.g. India). Usually it can be found by the side of roads on tank bunds or on agricultural boundaries, occasionally found in the forest areas. In Cambodia it grows wild between the paddy fields. [1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Prefers altitudes around sea level but grows up to 800 m a.s.l. [6, 11] (0-300 m [1]). It is very hardy and can grow on the poorest conditions. B.flabellifer is usually grown in strictly seasonal tropical or Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

subtropical climates with a winter- or bimodal rainfall regime and an annual precipitation of 500-900

3

mm/yr [6] in dry areas and up to 5,000 mm/yr [6] in per-humid areas. The palm is very adaptable, growing well in dry areas and is quite drought resistant, tolerating a dry season length of 4-8 months [1]. The optimum mean annual temperature is around 30ºC [6] (20-29ºC [1]), the mean maximum temperature of hottest month 32-45ºC [1] and the mean minimum temperature of coldest month 1825ºC [1], but it can withstand extreme temperatures of 8ºC [1] (0ºC [11]. Seedlings and juvenile trees are frost- and fire-sensitive. [1, 2, 6, 11]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : B.flabellifer may be grown on almost all soils with light to heavy texture and acid to alkaline pH, even on the poorest conditions regarding nutrient supply. However it prefers soils of coastal areas and black soils, rich in organic matter wit a free drainage. It also survives waterlogging quite well. [1, 2, 6, 8, 11]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The whole trunk is used by removing the soft middle part. The lowest 10 m of the trunk has hard and strong wood which is suitable for round wood, transmission poles, posts, piles, building poles for buildings or bridges, carpentry/joinery, engineering structures and beams. The softer middle part can be split into boards or used for wood based materials, block board, charcoal and fuel wood. "The whole trunk can also be made into a small boat capable of carrying at least three people" [4]. [1, 4, 11]

[Non-wood]: Every part of the palm is a useful resource. In India it is called the tree with 800 uses. Sugar products: The most important product of the toddy palm is the sap or juice, which is obtained from tapping the inflorescences. The naturally fermented palm juice (teck thnot chhu) is a common alcoholic beverage especially in rural areas with 5-6% [11] alcohol content and may later be converted into distilled ethanol (arrack) with an alcohol percentage of 20-60% or vinegar. To make vinegar the palm wine must be kept in a cool and dark spot for some time. Sugar palm juice is traditionally processed into three types of sugar: Liquid sugar (sugar palm syrup), crystalline palm sugar and block sugar. The most common type consumed in rural areas is sugar palm syrup which has about 80% dry matter. A sugar palm sap-soybean-freshwater spinach (Ipomoea acuatica) mix is commonly used to feed pigs. Handicrafts: Almost all households in rural areas use palm leaves not only for thatching but also for the walls. "In Cambodia 25 to 36 leaves are harvested twice a year from the palms that are not used

the past they were used as writing materials, especially by the monks. The fibers of young leaves can be woven into delicate patterns. Leafstalks are often used as poles for fencing or as fuelwood and can be split into fiber to be used for weaving and matting. The bark is a source for making strong ropes. Food: The edible fruits are much appreciated either for cakes or jelly. The young solid or gelatinous endosperm of the seeds is also eaten fresh or prepared as a sweet with sticky rice and in syrup. The top part of immature fruit is also cooked as a vegetable. The fresh pulp around the kernels is reported to be rich in vitamins A and C. The mature fruit is soaked in water after which the wiry fibers are extracted. The yellow pulp is mixed with rice starch, folded inside a banana leaf and later steamcooked. The tender mesocarp of young fruits is cooked in curry. The soft upper 10 m of the trunk contains some starch, which may be harvested in times of food scarcity. The growing point of the palm (palm heart or palm cabbage) is also edible. Seedlings can be peeled and eaten fresh or sundried, raw, or cooked in various ways. In Myanmar they are considered a delicacy but they are slightly toxic. "They also yield starch, which is locally made into gruel, with rice, herbs, chili peppers, fish, or other ingredients added. It has been proposed for commercial starch production" [5]. The nectar of the palm is also an important source for honey production. Medicine: Many parts of B.flabellifer (fruits, roots, flowering stalks, bark and juice) are used in traditional medicine: "The young plant is said to relieve biliousness, dysentery and gonorrhea. Young

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for tapping" [4]. The top young leaves are made into hats, boxes to store rice, baskets, fans, etc. In

4

roots are diuretic and anthelmintic, and a decoction is given in certain respiratory diseases. Dried roots can also be smoked to heal nasal complaints. The ash of the flower is taken to relieve heartburn and enlarged spleen and liver. The bark decoction, with salt, is used as a mouth wash, and charcoal made of the bark serves as a dentifrice. Sap from the flower stalk is prized as a tonic, diuretic, stimulant, laxative and anti phlegmatic and amebicide. Sugar made from this sap is said to counteract poisoning and it is prescribed in liver disorders. Candied, it is a remedy for coughs and various pulmonary complaints. Fresh toddy, heated to promote fermentation, is bandaged onto all kinds of ulcers. The cabbage, leaf petioles, and dried male flower spikes all have diuretic activity. The pulp of the mature fruit relieves dermatitis" [5]. "It is also useful as an anti-inflammatory and for dropsy and gastric conditions. Also has potential immuno-suppressive action. Constituents are: gum, fat and albuminoids" [2]. [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11]

[Others]: In India, Myanmar and Cambodia, toddy palms are often planted as a windbreak on plains or to delimit rice fields. The palm also provides natural shelter to animals like birds and monkeys and plants (ferns, orchids). [5, 6, 11]

O. Cambodian wood classification :

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No Class [3]

5

P. Silviculture and management : B.flabellifer is occupying large area of wastelands, forming pure crops in the drier parts of its geographical range, where the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merrill) and the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) cannot compete, or it is intermixed with the wild date palm (e.g. India). Usually it can be found by the side of roads on tank bunds, or on agricultural boundaries, occasionally found in the forest areas. Toddy palm can be planted in the full sun and does not require much attention once it has established. It responds well to water supply and manure. The trunk grows about 30 cm [6] in height per year. However it has a relatively long juvenile growth period (8-14 years [1]) which may limit its usefulness. In plantations thinnings are recommended to favor more productive female trees. "In Myanmar and Cambodia, toddy palm is usually cultivated by smallholders as a cash crop in addition to their main product, rice. Working time has to be divided between the two crops. Rice usually requires most labor in the wet season, toddy palm in the dry season" [6]. In Cambodia and Myanmar smallholders own 30-40 toddy palms on average (25 male, 15 female trees) [6] but at least 10 [4]. Harvesting and tapping normally starts when the palm is 25-30 years old and may continue for 80 years [6]. Less-productive palm trees are cut for timber when they are more than 10 m high and between 70-100 years old [4]. [Tapping]: Both male and female inflorescences are tapped for juice collection. Although both male and female inflorescences of B. flabellifer are tapped, the latter are preferred because they also have

inflorescences during the rainy season allowing higher yields. "Cambodian tappers have developed a technique to conserve inflorescences to be tapped after the normal harvest period" [4]. They use long bamboo ladders for climbing. Every 6-12 months the ladders are removed for safety reasons. "When the trees are located close to each other, one or two long bamboo poles are used as an aerial 'stairway' to facilitate movement between the trees, thus avoiding the need to descend and ascend each tree and permitting the tapper to use his time more productively. The tapper must climb the palm trunk just before the inflorescences open. To tap the inflorescences, some leaves are cut away for easy access. In male palms a number of partial inflorescences (usually about 12) are tied together after the flower buds have been stripped off. The stalks of these inflorescences are then systematically squeezed with tongs daily. In female palms the inflorescences are handled individually. Flowers are broken off and the flowering stalks are then squeezed for a number of days with larger tongs to enhance the sap flow. After three days the tops of the stalks of the inflorescences are cut off. The juice is channelled into a bamboo or plastic vessel, called an 'ampong', which can contain 2 to 4 kg of juice [4]. For each tree an average of four to six collection vessels are used according to the number of inflorescences being processed at the one time. The sap flow of an individual tree may continue for 3-6 months/year [6]. For each tapping a new slice as thin as possible is cut off from the tapped end of the stalk with a razor- sharp knife kept especially for this purpose. The nightly flow of sap is nearly double that of the flow in daytime. Collection is carried out twice daily (morning and afternoon) in order to limit exposure of the juice to contamination by yeast and other fermenting microorganisms. Small pieces of bark from various tree species containing tannins (e.g. Shorea cochinchinensis, Shorea roxburghii G. Don, Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merrill), or the leaves of

agent and are placed in the collection vessel while the juice is being collected. Also slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) is put into the vessels to prevent fermentation and deterioration. However, this affects the flavor of the sap. If bamboo buckets are used, they are placed on a fire for a moment after thorough cleaning. [Production] Tappers are capable of tapping 20-30 palm trees twice a day [4] (30-40 palms/working day [6]) if an assistant is available at the base of the trunk to receive the collected juice. The more skillful the tapper is in climbing and tapping, the better the yield. Sap yields can be as high as 6 l per day and palm. The annual production of palm sap amounts to 100-600 l/palm [6]. Other sources mention a production of 169-246 l/year. Palm sugar yields up to 16-70 kg/palm or 19 t/ha/year at a density of 275 palms per ha [6]. Fruit yields are 200-350/palm (if cultivated only for fruits) or up to 130 t/year if there are 275 female trees/ha [6]. However the yield varies greatly between palms. For the production of 1 kg palm syrup about 4 kg [4] (5 kg [6]) of fuelwood is needed. Most Cambodian farmers continue producing palm syrup and sugar because they can still find free fuelwood and it is their main income during the dry season. However in areas where wood is already a limiting factor (e.g. in Myanmar and parts of Cambodia) opportunity costs for fuelwood often exceed the value of the syrup produced. Palms are cut down when they become too tall to be climbed easily. [Processing]: "After harvest the sap may be boiled down into brown palm sugar. It is strained through a coconut leaf sheath sieve to remove debris and the added bark or leaf parts, and is then poured into

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Anacardium occidentale L. and Schleichera oleosa (Loureiro) Oken are used as a anti-fermentation

6

an open pan that is heated. When the liquid thickens it is poured into half coconut shells and allowed to cool and solidify. This sugar is highly hygroscopic, as it contains all the dry matter from the sap. The quality of the sugar is good. In Indonesia for example, the fine toddy palm sugar from Madura is superior to that made from Arenga in West Java and commands better prices on Javanese markets." [6] [1, 4, 6, 9]

Q. Propagation : It is easily propagated by using direct sowing, natural regeneration and sometimes planting stock. The seeds are collected from August to September and have a long viability. Seed storage is recalcitrant. Number of seeds/kg: 15-20. Germination percentage: 80%. Plant percent: 80%. Number of seedlings/kg seed: 12-16 [8]. As a pretreatment large healthy seeds are soaked in cow dung and water for a week and weathered in a pit. Then they are sown 7-10 cm [8] (10 cm [6]) or hammered deep into the soil (preferably during rain) with a spacing of 3-6 m directly in the field because seedlings are difficult to transplant [6]. Normally when planted, seed of toddy palm starts to germinate within 30-60 days [8] (45-60 days [6] ). During germination a tubular sprout emerges from the seed, protected by a cotelydonary sheath and grows down into the soil up to 90-120 cm depth. When growth continues the tuberous part sends forth roots, separates from the sheath and begins to grow upright. In 9-12 months the tip emerges above the ground, after which true leaves follow. After a rosette stage of 4-6 years the trunk formation starts. They are usually planted in groups, in order to facilitate tapping.

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[1, 6, 8, 11]

7

R. Hazards and protection : Toddy palm hardly suffers from diseases and pests. [Pests]: Termites may occasionally attack seedlings. Certain beetle species (Oryctes and Rhynchophorus) feed on dead plant material, but may at dense populations become harmful for living palms. It is therefore necessary to clean stands of all kind of debris. [Diseases]: Palms growing in rich black soil or soil liable to flooding may succumb to bud-rot, caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora which also occurs on coconut. First symptoms are spots on green leaf blades, which spread inwards to the bud. The bud then starts to rot and putrifies. The fungus can successfully be combated by killing and burning diseased palms. Another fungus disease is caused by Stigmina palmivora [1]. [Others]: Snakes and other venomous creatures sheltering in the crown may present a hazard to the tapper. [6]

S. Conservation : "Toddy palm is under pressure in all the countries where it is grown. In areas where coconut can be grown, toddy palm may be substituted for phytosanitary reasons. For example in Thailand stands are nearly eradicated." [6]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Central Cambodia. [6] Kp, Speu, Takeo, Pursat, Kp. Chnnang, Kp. Cham, Kandal, Prey Veng, Sway Rieng, Kp. Thom, Battambang, Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey, Phnom Penh. [7]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: India [10] [Introduced (since long)]: Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam [10] [Introduced (recently)]: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, French Polynesia, Papua New Guinea

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Properties]: "Palm sugar is much more nutritious than crude cane sugar, containing 1.04% protein, 0.19% fat, 76.86% sucrose, 1.66% glucose, 3.15% total minerals, 0.861 % calcium, 0.052% phosphorus; also 11.01 mg iron per 100 g and 0.767 mg of copper per 100 g" [5]."The fresh sap is reportedly a good source of vitamin B complex and contains 17-20% dry matter. It has a pH of 6.7-6.9 (-7.5) and per litre contains some proteins and amino acids (360 mg N), sucrose 13-18%, P 110 mg, K 1900 mg, Ca 60 mg, Mg 30 mg, vitamin B3.9 IU, and vitamin C 132 mg. The 7-9 g/l reducing sugars are probably formed through enzymatic or microbiological reactions immediately after tapping. The ash content of the sap os to 4-5g/l. A rather large, fresh fruit may weigh 2790 g (100%); perianth lobes 175 g (6.3%), exocarp 120 g (4.3%), mesocarp fiber 66 g (2.4%), mesocarp edible pulp 1425 g (51%) and 3 seeds 1004 g (36%). The 3 seeds consist of shell 394 g, endosperm 609 g and embryo 1 g" [11]. [World production and trade]: "Toddy palm is mainly grown for subsistence and is primarily produced by smallholders. Surplus production may be sold on local markets. Sri Lanka (10 milion palms on 25,000 ha), India (60 milion palms), Myanmar (2.5 milion palms on 25,000 ha), Central Cambodia (1.8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

8

milion palms), Indonesia (0.5 million palms on 15,000 ha). In 1968 the toddy palm sugar production in Cambodia was estimated at 35,000 t per year, and the national consumption at 10,000 t. [6] [History]: "It is almost generally assumed that B.flabellifer is a selection by man from the more dieverse B.aethiopum Mart. of Africa. Its distribution probably followed Indian trade routes in prehistoric times." [11]

W. Further readings5 : Davis TA, Johnson DV, 1987. Current utilization and further development of the palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer L., Arecaceae) in Tamil Nadu State, India. Economic Botany, 41(2):247-266; 27 ref. [1] Flach, M. & Paisooksantivatana, Y., 1996. Borassus flabellifer L. In Flach, M & Rumawas, F. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 9. Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 59-63. [6] Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH. [1] Hocking D, 1993. Trees for drylands. Trees for drylands., xiii + 370 pp.; [Originally published by Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India]; 12 pp. of ref. Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

9

Jagadeesh HN, Damodaran K, Padmanabhan S, Aswathanarayana BS, Xavier F, Kamal SZM, Guruva Reddy H, 1993. Studies on palmyrah wood. IPIRTI Research Report, No. 69:22 pp.; 6 ref. [1] Jagadeesh HN, Damodaran K, Aswathanarayana BS, 1996. Palmyrah wood - a potential source of wood raw material. Wood News, 6(2):20-23; 1 ref. [1] Jambulingam R, Fernandes ECM, 1986. Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands in Tamil Nadu State (India). Agroforestry Systems, 4(1):17-32; 7 ref. [1] Kovoor A, 1983. The palmyrah palm: potential and perspectives. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper, No. 52:v + 77 pp.; [6 pl.]; 90 ref. [1] Khieu Borin. 1996. The sugar palm tree as the basis of integrated farming systems in Cambodia.Contribution to Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds. Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Farming Systems. [4]

Khieu Borin & Preston, T.R. 1995. Conserving biodiversity and the environment and improving the well-being of poor farmers in Cambodia by promoting pig feeding systems using the juice of the sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer). Livestock Research for Rural Development, (7)2: 25-30. [4] Khieu Borin, Preston, T.R. & Lindberg, J.E. 1996. Juice production from the sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer) in Cambodia and performance of growing pigs fed sugar palm juice. In Sustainable Tropical Animal System, p. 1-11. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden. (M.Sc. thesis) [4] Mahendran S, 1994. The activities of the Palmyrah Development Board and some aspects of agronomic research and development needs of the organization. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka, 22(SUP A):S47-S53; 5 ref. [1] Morton JF, 1988. Notes on distribution, propagation, and products of Borassus palms (Arecaceae). Economic Botany, 42(3):420-441; [12 pl.]; 81 ref. [1] Reddy ANY, Yekantappa K, Somesh Korcher, 1988. Nursery technique of Borassus flabellifer Linn. Myforest, 24(2):114-116 + 2 pl. [1]

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[3] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished. [4] Khieu Borin: Sugar palm (Borassus flabellifer): Potential feed resource for livestock in small-scale farming systems (internet source)

[5] Morton, J.F.,1988: Notes on Distribution, Propagation and Products of Borassus Palms (Arecaceae). Economic Botany (1988) 42(3): 420-441 [6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.as (Internet source) [7] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations. [8] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture (Internet source). [9] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/Individual.php?id=443. (Internet source). [10] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [11] PROSEA, 1996: Plant Resources of South East Asia 9 - Plants yielding non-seed carbonhydrates.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. [4].

B. English name (s)

³

lacquer tree, Bengal kino tree, flame of the forest [4].

C. Synonym

³

syn B. frondosa Roxb. ex Willd.[4], Erythrina monosperma Lam.[20].

D. Other1

³

giéng giéng (Vn)[2]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ cha:r [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae

1

Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Papilionaceae Gunus: Butea Species: Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub Source :[ 2 ; 4 ; 5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A small tree, 6-10 m, 25–40 cm in diameter, frequently short-boled, trunk striated like Lagerstroemia tomentosa, crooked and twisted; crown open [2]. Tree, 8-10 m tall, [4]. Deciduous tree, up to 15 m, irregular crown and crooked trunk. [5]. Easily recognized when flowering because of the brilliant red flowers [2]; with pubescent branches; deciduous [13].

[Bark]: Greyish to pale brown, smooth or slightly flaking, rough, nodose, 0.5 cm thick, red-brown beneath, fibrous, exuding red, adstringent resin or gum when cut. Old branches crooked, young branches densely hairy [2]. [Leaves]: Compound, trifoliate, consisting of 3 leaflets, rhachis 12-20 cm, slender, pubescent when young, canaliculate above. The central leaflet greater than the lateral ones. Petiole 2.5–4.0 cm long, a ring of filiform stipules near the leaf base. Lamina shortly rhomboid, green, 6-12 by 6-12 cm. Lateral veins 5-6 pairs ascending, branched near the margin, venules reticulate. Lateral leaflets orbiculate, 510 cm long and 4-5 cm wide[2]. Leaf trifoliate, central leaflet slightly larger than others, 10-17 cm, broadly obovate with blunt or rounded tips and slightly tapering base; side leaflets narrower, ovate, blunt at both ends. Young leaves with fine silky hairs, mature leaves leathery, smooth above, thinly hairy below with 1 main vein and 7-8 regularly spaced side-veins. Main stalk 7.5 to 15.0 cm, side leaflets stalks ± 1 cm [5]. [Flowers]: In clusters of 2-3 on young branches densely pubescent. Peduncle 3-4 cm long, pubescent with 2 caducous bracts. The flowers are red, large, 4-6 cm long. Sepals connate, into a campanulate (bell-shaped) tube, 1.5 cm wide and 1 cm long with 3 short lobes. Petals 5, long, red. Stamens 10, diadelphous(9)+1), pubescent. Ovary ovoid, style silvery-white, pubescent, ovules 4-6 [2]. Flowers 5-6 cm, bright orange, densely clustered on short woody stumps along all branches, appearing after the old leaves have fallen. Individual stalks 1.5-3.5 cm, twice as long as calyx. 5 silky petals, similar in size, the lowest one strongly curved and hiding the stamens. There are 10 stamens, 1 free and 9 fused into a tube, 1 long curved style [5]. Flowers big, 3 to 5 cm wide, spectacularly shining blood-red

[Fruit]: Large, 12-16 cm long, 3-4 cm wide, oblong, compressed, winged around, covered with silverywhite hairs, reticulately veined. Pericarp coriaceous, slightly stiff. Seed elliptic, 2.5 cm long, compressed and red-brown [2]. Fruit 15-20 by 4-6 cm, oblong, often slightly curved, rather thick and woody, densely covered with very short, silky hairs, abruptly narrowed at base with persistent calyx, stalks 1.2-2.5 cm [5]. Fruit: Forming flat pods containing 1 seed [13]. Flowering takes place in April [2].

I. Wood properties: The wood is red, hard and durable, but not straight-grained [2]. Most of the trees are rather crooked. The soft and not durable wood is light, about 570 kg/m³ air dry, white or yellowish-brown when fresh, but often turning greyish because of susceptibility to sap stain. It is not of great value but is sometimes used for utensils [20].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : B. monosperma occurs from India to Burma, Sri Lanka; in the premontane Himalayas up to 1200 m elevation asl.. Natural distribution in dry forests, from India through SE Asia to Indonesia. Usually growing in nearly pure stands or mixed with other species in the dry Dipterocarp forest such as D. obtusifolius, Shorea siamensis, and Terminalia corticosa. It is not common in the wild, usually it can be found in very degraded fire-damaged areas [2,5]. Occurs naturally widely in Indonesia, usually in

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to orange, occasionally yellow papilionaceous flowers with enlarged alae [13].

2

lowland monsoon forest where it is associated with Azadirachta indica, Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd., Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. and Cassia fistula L. [16].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : B. sperma sheds its leaves during the dry season.It is short-boled with pubescent branches. It ccurs naturally in the dry forests of Sri Lanka, Burma and India. This species prefers a climate with a distinct dry and rainy season at elevaions between 200-500m asl. A light-demanding tree growing best on old alluvial accreted soil, also on red basaltic soils [2].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Old alluvial soils and weathered red basalts [2], however, it grows on a wide variety of soils including shallow, gravelly sites, black cotton soil, clay loams, and even saline or waterlogged soils. Seedlings thrive best on a rich loamy soil with pH 6-7 under high temperature and high relative humidity [20].

N. Utilization and importance : This species, Butea monosperma, is one of the most versatily usable small trees. The species is able to thrive under quite variable and often rather poor conditons. In first place mention is made of its spectecular bright red or orange flowers. But in rural India, Sri Lanka or Thailand it is the other uses

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that rest in the center of interest. There is the strongly adstringernt Kino resin that assists in closing

3

wounds, the tannin and 2 colors of dyes and last not least the use of branches with leaves involved in a process of clay agglomeration for reducing the salt content of water in ricefields. Finally, Butea monosperma is one of two high quality-yielding feed tree species for scale insects producing shellack. [Wood]: Valued for construction, but it is difficult to find straight pieces of lumber [4]. The wood makes a fuel of moderate quality, however, it yields durable charcoal of high calorific content [2]. Leaves are sometimes used as a fuel. The wood is burnt for gunpowder charcoal. [Non-Wood]:Bark is rich in tannin, also yields resin and gum. A bright yellow to deep orange-red dye, known as butein, prepared from the flowers, is used especially for dyeing silk and sometimes for cotton. This dye is used by Hindus to mark the forehead [20]. B. monosperma is also frequently planted as an ornamental tree because of the spectacular orange flowers. Young roots are edible B. monosperma is used for producing a red dye from the roots and yellow dye from the flowers [13]. Binding material and ropes and footwear can be produced from the bark fibres [4].

This coarse fibrous material obtained from the inner bark is used for cordage, caulking the seams of boats and making paper [20]. Butea is also a well-known medicinal plant. For a long time the plant was the main source a most effective adstringent. By cutting the bark a rapidly drying sap, the Butea or Benghal kino can be obtained. In former times this was one of the most important adstringent compounds available for application in medicine [13]. Together with the species Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) O.Kuntze Butea monosperma is said to be one of the best feed plants for the semi-domesticated scale insect Laccifer lacca Kerr, a small scale insect feeding on the sap and exuding a resin-like compound traded under the name of shellack. There are still other species but Butea is among the best and Butea and Flemingia are easier to cultivate. Only India and Thailand are still producing and exporting the end product, shellac, in significant quantities.[19] A report from Dak Lac Province in Vietnam indicates that the sticklac harvested from this tree is thicker and more brightly red than from other host tree species [2]. Other: Seedlings and green branches are also spread in ricefields as a salt-filtering agent and green manure. Leaf-decomposing bacteria produce a slime that is able to aggregate clay particles. In the course of this process micro-cavities are formed loosening the compacted soil and allowing leaching of noxious salts from the soil solution.So, B. monosperma is also an effective green manure and soil improving plant [13].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : Cultivated as lac insect feed tree in India[2], raised elsewhere as an ornamental tree, no information on plantations in India

Q. Propagation : Natural regeneration is strong under open forest canopy [2]. Natural regeneration by both seed and root suckers is profuse. Artificial propagation is chiefly from direct-sown seeds, sown 25-30 cm apart in lines 3-5 m apart. The taungya system is often used, as weeding during the first 1-2 years is essential for the proper development of the plants. Root suckers and nursery seedlings can also be used for propagation. Because of the good coppicing power of this species, it is also a reliable method of natural propagation. Germination, which starts in about 10-12 days, is completed in 4 weeks. Fresh seeds have a good germinative capacity (about 63%) at optimum germination temperature of about 30 ºC. Germination is hypogeous [20].

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IButea monosperma is revered by the Hindus and frequently grown around houses [4].

4

R. Hazards and protection : Seedlings and saplings are browsed and damaged by cattle. Rats and porcupines feed on fleshy roots, killing the sapling. Insect pests attack different parts of the tree. Several defoliators belonging to the families Arctiidae, Eucosmidae, Lasiocampidae, Lymantriidae, Noctuidae, Notodontidae, Pieridae, and Sphingidae have been recorded. Insects of the family Coccidae feed on the sap. The larvae of some insects of the family Lycaenidae feed on the flowers [20]. Xanthomonas buteae causes black leaf spots, which in case of a severe infection may cover the entire leaf surface and cause premature defoliation. Phomopsis buteae and Pseudodiplodia buteae have also been recorded on the leaves [20].

S. Conservation : not an endangered species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Southeast Asia,native; Indonesia, Vietnam, introduced

V. Miscellaneous4 : This tree is not easily found in the wild, commonly in very degraded, fire-damaged areas. Frequently planted for its fabulous flame-colored flowers [5].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Shellac is produced in large quantities only in India and Thailand, it is an important export product

5

(1991). Shellac is the resinous exudation of the scale insect Laccifer lacca Kerr., which is raised on a variety of trees. The trees must be pruned and allowed to rest to ensure regular and high yields.

W. Further readings5 : Indian Farming 1976: Special Issue on Lac. Indian Farming 27(8): 3-35 Ganeshaiah KN, Shaanker RU, 1991. Seed size optimization in a wind dispersed tree Butea monosperma: a trade-off between seedling establishment and pod dispersal efficiency. Oikos, 60(1):3-6; 32 ref.

Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text].

Kumar P, 1989. Vegetative propagation in palas (Butea monosperma) through air layering. Indian Journal of Forestry, 12(3):188-190; 3 ref.

Lal S, Ram M, Singh BP, Shrivastava SC, 1976. Bhalia: a versatile lac host plant. Indian Farming, 27(8):9-11; [3 pl.].

Pathak PS, Patil BD, 1985. Seed weight affecting early seedling growth of Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 3:23-24.

Sharma SK, 1993. Butea monosperma with abnormal leaves. Indian Forester, 119(11):948.

Vershney RK, 1967. Some observations on the stink bug (Cyclopelta siccifolia)- a pest of Butea monosperma. Indian Forester, 93(11):765-767.

Viswanath S, Kaushik PK, Chand S, Pandey DK, 1994. The butea tree - for lac and rice production in India. Agroforestry Today, 6(2):10.

afar R, Parminder Singh, Siddiqui AA, 1989. Antimicrobial and preliminary phytochemical studies on leaves of Butea monosperma Linn. Indian Journal of Forestry, 12(4):328-329; 5 ref.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997, 788 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

13) Baertels, A. 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp] ³

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp

B. English name (s)

³

pigeon pea, Congo pea [2]

C. Synonym

³

Cajanus bicolor DC. [5], Cajanus flavus DC., nom. illeg.

A. Latin name

(s)

[5], Cajanus indicus Spreng., nom. illeg. [5], Cytisus cajan L. [5], Cajanus cajan forma bicolor (DC.) Baker. [10], Cajanus cajan var. bicolor (DC.) Purseglove [10], Cajanus cajan var. flavus (DC.) Purseglove [10], Cajanus indicus Sprengel [10], Cajanus indicus var. bicolor (DC.) Kuntze [10], Cajanus indicus var. flavus (DC.) Kuntze [10], Cajanus indicus var. maculatus Kuntze [10], Cajanus luteus Bello [10]

D. Other1

³

ambrévade, pois d'Angole (France) [5] - kacang Bali,

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kacang gude, kacang kayu (Indonesia) [5] - adhaki, arhar, kandulu, thovaray, thuvara, togare, tur, tuvari, tuvarika, tuver (India) [5] - thwàx h'ê (Laos) [5] - kacang, kacang dal, kacang hiris (Malaysia) [5] - kardis, kidis, tabios (Philippines) [5] - ma hae, thua maetaai, thua rae (Thailand) [5] - cay dau chieu, dau sang (Vietnam) [5]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

sENþkkøigÁ/ sENþkRKab;-s Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sânndaèk khloëng, sânndaèk krôab sa: [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguiminosales / Fabales Family: Leguminosae / Papilionceae Gunus: Cajanus Species: Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

Source :[ 5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Cajanus cajan is a small, perennial tree or shrub with a height of 3-4 m [2] (up to 4 m [10], 0.5-4 m [9]) and a compact, open or bushy crown with slender branches. The stems have only a diameter of up to 15 cm [9]. It is short living with only 1-5 years [5]. [Roots]: It has a strong deep taproot with thin roots up to 2 m deep [9]. "The primary structure of the roots is usually tetrarch. In the cortex of young roots mycorrhizae can sometimes be observed within the cells. The root system is well developed and well spread. It has well developed lateral roots in the superficial layers of the soil. Root growth continues during the reproductive phase and the total length approximately doubled after the onset of the flowering. There were about 1,500 m of roots beneath each square meter of soil surface by the end of the reproductive phase" [10]. [Nodules]: "Pigeon pea is nodulated by Rhizobia of the cowpea group. The nodules on the roots of plants grown on vertisols are generally small. The majority is on the upper 30 cm of the root system, but some can be found even below 120 cm. The nodules of plants grown on alfisols are generally larger and better developed than those on vertisols; plants on alfisols have also been found to have a higher nitrogen fixation as estimated by the acetylene reduction technique" [10]. [Leaves]: The first two leaves of a twig are simple and opposite. The subsequent leaves consist of 3 narrow leaflets which are spirally arranged, green above and silvery green underneath. The main stalk of the leaflet is 1-2 cm long [9] the secondary stalk half as long or less. The stipules are pointed 2.5-5

both sides, the largest up to 7.5-8 x 2.8-3.5 cm [9] (10 x 3 cm [10]) with a pointed leaftip. Veins form a parallel network and are prominent underneath. There are over ten times more stomata on the lower than the upper surface of the leaves. Leaves also contain oil producing glands which are responsible for the fragrance of pigeon pea plants. These oil producing glands are clearly visible under a microscope. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=raceme) is 4-12 cm long [10] and grows axillary from a single stalk, terminating at the insertion of 1-2 flowerstalks [9] or continuing for 1-3 additional nodes [9], rarely branching, usually slightly shorter than the leaves and mostly with 2-6 flowers [9]. Flowers are red and yellow with a total length of 2 cm [10] and flowerstalks to about 0.9 cm long [9]. The outer flowerleaves (=sepals) are fused into a tube which is 3-5 mm long [9], with many hairs and glands and a 4 mm long [9] lower lobe. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are hairless and about 14 mm long [9], with a claw about 4 mm long [9]. "The majority of the flowers open between 11 am and 3 pm. They are visited by bees and other insects" [10]. [Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are green, green with purplish blotches, or purplish, linear egg-shaped with a blunt or pointed tip, compressed and depressed between the seeds, about 4 x 1 x 0.3-0.4 cm [9] (310 cm long [10]). The pods contain more number of oil producing glands than the leaves. There is little or no shattering of dried pods in the field. Each pod contains 1-5 compressed egg-shaped or oval

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

mm long [9] and persistent. The leaflets are spear-shaped or narrowly elliptic, covered with hairs on

2

seeds [9] (2-3 or 8-9 seeds depending on cultivar [10]) of various colors, about 6 x 4 x 1.5 mm [9]. Seeds are smooth and coated, with a white, greyish, brown, red, purplish or speckled color. The whole seeds contain 18-29% protein and 48- 59% starch [10]. [2, 9, 10]

I. Wood properties: [Wood properties]: "The energy content of the wood averages 1,450 kJ/100 g" [6].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: Cajanus cajan is probably indigenous to NE-Africa [10] or South Asia [2, 9] but is now cultivated throughout the tropics at latitudes between 30°N and 30°S [10] (28°N to 15°S [5]). The species is not found truly in the wild, thus its natural habitat conditions are uncertain. It prefers grassy habitats in savannas, shrubland and wasted land and is not common in forests. [2, 3, 5, 9, 10]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : This species is normally grown at altitudes between sea level and 2,000 m a.s.l. [6, 9, 10] (200-2,000 m [5]), but in Venezuela some cultivars can be found as high as 3,000 m [13]. The annual rainfall range for growth is reported to be 400 in semi-arid climate to 4,000 mm in humid climate [10] with the optimum between 600-1,500 mm [10] (400-2,500 mm [9], 600-2,000 mm [5], 600-1,000 mm [6]). A dry season of up to 6 months [5] is tolerated. The temperature range for growth is reported to be 10-45°C [9] (15-40°C [2], 13-32ºC [5]) with the optimum between 18-38°C [6, 9, 10] (20-29ºC [5]). The absolute minimum temperature should be more than 10ºC [5] and it is easily damaged by frost. Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2, 5, 6, 9, 10]

3

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : C. cajan is grown in a wide range of soils with varying physical and chemical characteristics. It thrives in well drained, medium deep to deep sandy loams but will also grow in heavier soils. The major soils are alluvials, vertisols and alfisols, with a pH range from 5 to 7 or more [6, 9] (the pH for successful growth is reported to be 4.5-8.4 [10] with the optimum between 5.0 and 7.0 [10]). It is sensitive to salinity and has not been produced on saline soils. The plant tolerates an electrical conductivity (salinity) from 0.6 to 1.2 S/m [6]. It is also susceptible to waterlogging for more than 3-4 months [2, 9]. Poor fertility, sandy soils, and low moisture are however tolerated very well. [2, 5, 6, 9, 10]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Cajanus cajan has a life span of 1-5 years [5], thus producing only timber in small dimensions. The sticks are an important household fuel in many areas. "The heat value with 1,450

kJ/100 g [6] is about twice as high as the same weight of coal, and it has several advantages over traditional trees, such as its rapid growth potential, possibility of producing other crops on the same land, and production of a seed crop. Farmers sow it instead of grain because of its wood. Its productivity levels more than make up for the comparatively poor fuel characteristics" [9]. Other uses include light construction such as roofing, wattling on carts and tubular wickerwork lining for wells and baskets (e.g. India). "On an experimental basis, C. cajan has been found to produce a pulp for paper similar to that of hardwoods, and the pulp might be suitable for making good-quality writing and printing paper" [9]. [5, 6, 9] [Non-wood]: Food: "The seeds of C. cajan can be used as a vegetable. Very young pods are harvested before the seeds are distinct and are cooked in curries or used to make relishes. The dry seeds have several products such as tempe (a traditional Indonesian food prepared by fermenting with a Rhizopus mould then soaked, dehulled and cooked legume seeds), and 'ketchup' (pigeonpea sauce, a replacement for soy sauce in Indonesia that is made by fermenting C. cajan with Apergillus oryzae). C. cajan flour (mixed with wheat to improve the protein level of baked products) and clear noodles of a quality higher than that of mung bean are made from dehulled seed. Fresh seeds contain vitamins, especially provitamin A and vitamin B complex. Per a 100 g edible portion, dry seeds contain 7-10.3 g water, 14-30 g protein, 1-9 g fat, 36-65.8 g carbohydrates, 5-9.4 g fiber and 3.8 g ash." [9]. Oil: "An essential oil can be collected by the steam distillation of pigeonpea leaves and other aerial this glandular secretion is unknown. It may have some insect repellent role. Such glandular hairs are found on all aerial parts of the plants, except some parts of flowers such as petals and stamens" [9]. Fodder: "C. cajan fodder alone may be a bit low in energy. The leaves can provide a good substitute for alfalfa in animal feed formulations, particularly in areas not suitable for alfalfa. The pods are used as cattle feed but are limited by their low protein (15-24% of protein [2]) and high fiber content. They have therefore been used as a roughage source for cattle. C. cajan grain has been successfully used for poultry feed. In Hawaii, a mixture of equal quantities of cracked pigeonpea and cracked maize has been proved the best poultry ration" [9]. Medicine: "It has many traditional uses as medicine. In Java, for example, the young leaves are applied to sores, herpes and itches" [9]. [2, 9] [Others]: It is often grown near houses to make fences and is useful as a tall hedge on dry soil and on the bunds of paddy fields. It is often grown as a shade crop, cover crop or windbreak. "The root system is reported to break plough pans, thus improving soil structure, encouraging infiltration, minimizing sedimentation and smothering weeds. Leaf fall at maturity adds to the organic matter in the soil and provides additional nitrogen. It seems to have special mechanisms to extract phosphorus

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organs. It contains a mixture of compounds including the terpenoid alpha - copaene. The function of

4

from black vertisol soils. Using the nitrogen-balance method, it has been proved in northern India that long-duration C. cajan can fix up to 200 kg N/ha over a 40-week period" [9]. [5, 9, 13]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Cajanus cajan is not found truly in the wild, thus its natural habitat conditions are uncertain. It prefers grassy habitats in savannas, shrubland and wasted land and is not common in forests. It shows fair to good coppicing abilities and fixes nitrogen very well. [Establishment]: Stand are established by using primarily direct sowing but also natural regeneration, planting stock and wildlings. For monocropping systems, seeds should be sown in high densities (50,000+ seeds/ha [2]) on well-prepared fields. Gaps may be filled later with seedlings grown from containers. [Management]: Cajanus cajan is usually grown as an annual [5] but also perennial [10] shrubby legume. "For hedgerow intercropping, the hedges should be cut at height of 0.5-1 m when the grain crop is fully mature. The hedges can be cut 2-3 times a year in areas where the dry season lasts 4-6 months. At pod maturity, branches of C. cajan are cut at about 0.5 m. Higher levels of pruning can result in higher and unacceptable levels of plant mortality. As a field crop, C. cajan may be typified as rather undeveloped. The tall genotypes particularly are cumbersome in cultivation. Weeds must be Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

controlled to prevent slow initial growth. Wind may bend the plants, but staking is not practised. In

5

intensive cropping of short-duration cultivars, irrigation may be required. C. cajan’s response to fertilizers is rarely economic; a phosphate dressing is generally recommended at 20-100 kg/ha." [9] [Pea harvesting and processing]: "Entire air-dried plants are threshed, usually by hand or with cattle, and seed is cleaned. Clean bins prevent insect attack, which can be considerable. Storage as split peas reduces bruchid attack. Processing includes dhal making,either wet (after sprinkling heaps of seed) or dry, by milling. In the West Indies, canning and freezing of fresh pigeon peas is a milliondollar export business, for instance to the United States" [6]. [Timber yield]: "In perennial crops, 2-10 tons/ha/yr [2] of woody stalks are harvested" [10]. [Seed yield]: "Pigeonpea is a relatively low yielding crop. The growth of pigeonpea is greatly influenced by temperature. In traditional cropping systems, the highest pigeonpea yields, exceeding 4 tons per ha are obtained with late maturing cultivars, which grow well in frost free regions of north central and north west India. The most important variable determining yield is pod number per plant, or rather pod number per unit area. Earlier formed pods, are produced at the more basal nodes of the branches and later formed pods at the more apical nodes. They contain almost the same number of seeds. Moreover the seeds of the almost the same average weight. This indicates that the plants set just as many or few pods as they are capable of filling." [10]

[Agroforestry]: "In Southeast Asia, C. cajan is grown as a support for vanilla. Due to its hardiness, ability to grow on residual soil moisture, and slow early growth, C. cajan is an ideal, non-competitive crop to plant with cereals. In traditional cropping systems, it is mixed with cereals, oil seeds, shortseason pulses or cotton, with the cereal as the main crop and C. cajan as the bonus crop. In Kenya, it is an important food legume, cultivated commercially for dry seed and as a green vegetable. In Zambia, smallholder farmers generally grow it in their backyards and around the fields of annual crops. In Uganda, it is combined with millet in a cropping system. Also honeybees collect nectar from the plant, which is an important honey source. The honey has a distinctive greenish hue in the comb. C. cajan serves as a host for silkworm (in Madagascar) or the lac insect (in northern Bengal and Thailand)" [9]. [2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: The pods are picked when the seed has reached physiological maturity and is just beginning to lose its bright green color. There are 5,000-14,000 seeds/kg [9] (4-24 g/100 seeds [10]). Seed storage behavior is orthodox with no problems for long-term storage under preferred conditions. They can be stored up to 4 months [2] in humid tropics, longer in drier regions. No pregermination treatment of seeds is needed. Seedlings show no dormancy problems and the hypogeal germination is generally good except in cool conditions. The most rapid germination of seedlings occurs between 29 and 36°C [10]. Emergence is complete 2-3 weeks [9] after sowing. [Propagation]: Direct seeding is the best method, however stand establishment is also possible by

[2, 5, 9, 10]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Because of its long flowering period, damage by pests such as agromyza fruitflies and heliothis borers may be compensated for by renewed flushes. Chemical control is cumbersome and expensive in the tree’s tall, indeterminate forms" [9]. Nodules can also be damaged by the larva of a fly Rivellia angulata. The seed oil of Cajanus cajan is slightly sticky in nature, probably one of the reasons why egg parasitoids have not been very successful in controlling the pod borers in pigeon pea. Other insect pests include: Exelastis atomosa, Helicoverpa armigera and Melanagromyza obtusa. [9, 10] [Diseases]: "C. cajan has more than 100 pathogens. They include fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes (cyst nematode, reniform nematode, root-knot nematode) and mycoplasm-like organisms. A disease of economic importance is fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum), which is found in Bangladesh, Ghana, Grenada, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Nepal and Tanzania. Control measures include cultural practices like rotation with tobacco over several years and breeding for resistance. Sterility mosaic is the most important disease of C. cajan in India and Nepal. Others include phytophthora blight and cercospora leafspot" [9]. Other fungi are Gibberella indica and Heterodera cajani.

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using natural regeneration, planting stock and wildlings. Stem cuttings rarely succeed.

6

[9]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]:

[Native]: India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan [9] NE-Africa [10] [Introduced]: Afghanistan, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, El Salvador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Ghana, Grenada, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mauritius, Nepal, New Zealand, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Thailand, Uganda, United States of America, Zambia, Zanzibar, Zimbabwe.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9]

7

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Growth Analysis]: "The growth rate is linearly related to Leaf Area Index (LAI) and is greatest at the highest population density. On the other hand, dry matter and leaf number per plant declined at increasing population densities. In intercropping systems in which pigeonpea is shaded by a faster growing companion crop such as sorghum, the growth rate and LAI are, not surprisingly, much lower than in comparable pigeonpea grown as a sole crop. However, after the harvest of the intercrop, the amount of light available to the plants is greatly increased. In an intercropping system, the roots of different species have been found to intermingle freely with each other" [10]. [Photosynthesis]: "The rates of photosynthesis and transpiration in pigeonpea is relatively low. Light saturation of photosynthesis occurs at only 1/3 full sunlight in young leaves and at less than 1/4 full sunlight in old leaves. Peak photosynthesis occurred at lower light levels as the leaf aged, at around 800 microE/m²/sec in young leaves and 400 microE/m²/sec in old leaves. Pigeon pea leaves of all ages had a similar efficiency of carbon fixation of 0.27 mg CO2/m²/(microE/m²) at very low light levels. CO2 is fixed more slowly at low light levels, and transpiration rates is also reduced. During the dark hours, pigeonpea leaves lose 0.25 micro grams H2O/cm²/sec/KPaVPD, equivalent to more than 5 g of water per 100 cm² of leaf for a night with 80% relative humidity. Photosynthesis declines between -10 and -11 bars (1.0 amd 1.1 Mpa) leaf water potential and at -20 bars was close to zero. At -50 bars, tip death of some branches results limited to leaves that were unfolding or younger" [10].

[Nutrient Uptake]: "Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium uptake takes place throughout the vegetative phase and continue during the reproductive phase. During the growing season, the percentage content of these elements in the various vegetative and reproductive organs declines. Nitrogen percentage in the leaves declined from a maximum of around 5% to 1.5% at the time of abscission, and of phosphorus from 0.3% to less than 0.1% showing that over two - thirds of the content of these elements were remobilized during the process of leaf senescence. Remobilization from the leaves can account for most of the nitrogen in the seeds and for at least half the phosphorus" [10]. [Pod set]: "As many as 90% of the flowers of Pigeon pea are shed without setting pods. Potential fertile flowers in pigeonpea do not bear pods unless others are removed. Moreover due to the perennial nature of pigeonpea, sufficient amount of nutrients must be retained for their survival and continued growth of the vegetative structures. The relatively small proportion of assimilates partitioned into the reproductive structures of pigeonpea, reflected in low harvest indices, may be related to their intrinsic prenniality" [10].

W. Further readings5 : Ali SI, 1973. Flora of Pakistan. Caesalpiniaceae. Karachi, Pakistan: University of Karachi. [9]

Borkar SL, Patil PP, Ingle SN, 1996. Infestation of pod borers in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) as influenced by different pesticides and spraying schedules. Journal of Soils and Crops, 6(2):146150.

Katayama K, Ito O, Matsunaga R, Adu-Gyamfi JJ, Rao TP, Anders MM, Lee KK, 1995. Nitrogen balance and root behavior in four pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan]-based intercropping systems [in India]. Fertilizer Research, 42(1/3):315-319; 14 ref. [9]

Prasad K, 1995. Weed control in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) maize (Zea mays) intercropping system under rainfed condition. Journal of Research, Birsa Agricultural University, 7(1):57-59; 4 ref. [9]

Purseglove J.W. (1984) Tropical Crops - Dicotyledons http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=527687 [9]

Rai RK, Singh KP, 1995. Efficacy of certain oilcake amendments on Heterodera cajani, Fusarium udum and associated wilt of pigeonpea. International Journal of Tropical Plant Diseases, 13(2):213-219.

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[9]

8

[9]

Rao DLN, Gill HS, 1995. Biomass production and nutrient recycling through litter from pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.). Bioresource Technology, 54(2):123-128; 8 ref. [9]

Reed W, Lateef SS, 1990. Pigeonpea: pest management. The pigeonpea., 349-374; 27 ref. [9]

Swaminathan C, 1996. Effect of bark leachates of multipurpose trees on germination and seedling growth of maize, pigeonpea and sesame. Allelopathy Journal, 3(1):77-80; 8 ref. [9]

Vandenbeldt RJ. 1988. Cajanus cajan: it’s more than just a pulse crop. NFT Highlights. Waimanalo, USA. [9]

van der Maesen, L.J.G., 1985. Cajanus DC. and Atylosia W. & A. (Leguminosae). A revision of all taxa closely related to the pigeonpea, with notes on other related genera within the subtribe Cajaninae. Agricultural University Wageningen Papers 85-4. 225 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9]

9

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA. [5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [7] CTSP (Cambodia Tree Seed Project), 2003: Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed Sector , Dec. 2003, Forest Gene Conservation Strategy-Part A: Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources. [8] Various Authors, 1973: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-nam (Fascicule 18th), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

[9] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source)

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[10] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr.] ³

Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. [2]

B. English name (s)

³

False kelat, freshwater mangrove, corkwood

C. Synonym

³

Carallia integerrima DC., Carallia lucida Roxb., Carallia

A. Latin name

(s)

scortechinii King [26].

D. Other1

³

meransi, sabar buku (Brunei); kitamiyang (IndonesiaSundanese); ringgit darreh (Indonesia-Sumatra-Kubu); sepat, meransi (Indonesia Java); meransi, (MalaysiaPeninsular); rabong, radipah (Malaysia-Sarawak); bakawangubat (Philippines-general); anosep (Philippines-tagalog); katolit (Philippines-Iloko); maniawga-yat (Burma); tra meng (Cambodia); bong nang, halay, koueum (Laos); chiang phra nang aer (Thailand-general); ma m[ax], s[aw]ng, m[ar], sen d[ow], xâng mâ nguyên (Vietnam) [2,17].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

RTEmg

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tromê:ng [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Myrtales Family: Rhizophoraceae Gunus: Carallia Roxb. [17]. Species: Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. [17] Source :[ 11 , 17]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Although Carallia brachiata belongs to the family Rizophoraceae and occasionally develops stilt roots it is not a mangrove species. However, distribution in the coastal forests of northern Australia and its name of sweetwater mangrove indicate that it is a species tolerant of stagnant water. The lack of extensive information is partly due to the fact thatit occurs throughout its area of distribution but remains a rare species. A tree, 20-25 m high, sometimes up to 30 m; up to 50-60 cm in diameter. Trunk straight and cylindrical; young branchlets flat , opposite, green, then turning brown-red [2]. A shrub or tall tree, 830 m, occasionally with a few aerial roots, 1.0-1.5 m from the trunk´s bottom[4]. Evergreen tree, up to 20 m high, usually much smaller [5]. Shrubs or small to fairly large trees up to 36 (-50) m tall; bole up to 50 cm in diameter, occasionally with small buttresses (up to 1 m high), sometimes with small stilt roots or aerial roots at base[17]. [Bark]: Bark green-brown, thin and glabrous; inner bark red-brown [2]. Pale creamy-brown to warm red-brown, quite smooth with many lenticels [5]. Bark surface smooth to finely cracking or shallowly to deeply fissured, lenticillate, often hoop-marked, grey to reddish-brown or dark brown, inner bark striate, yellowish-brown to pinkish-brown [17]. [Leaves]: Simple, opposite, stipulate. Leaf blade 4-10 cm long, 2.5-4.5 cm wide, variable in shape: obovoid, oval or elliptic, apex mucronate, base cuneate, margin entire, dark green, glossy above, greenish and obviously red-brown dotted beneath; penninerved. Petiole stout, 0.5 cm long. Stipule

Leaves 4-17 x 2.5-8.0 cm, simple, opposite-planar, oval to broadly obovate with blunt or abrupt tip and slightly pointed base, untoothed or with scattered fine teeth. Mature leaves leathery, completely smooth, glossy dark green above, yellow green with many tiny dark dots below. At least 15 pairs of side-veins with many intermediate ones, looped near margin, mid-vein sunken above. Stalks 0.4-1.0 cm, stout. Buds narrowly conical, thinly coated with resin, enclosed by a pair of large (1-2 cm) stipules, which fall early, leaving distinct ring scars. Twigs dark brown slightly swollen at nodes [5]. Leaves decussate, simple, elliptical to obovate or narrowly obovate, margin entire to dentate or serrate, often with black dots beneath; stipules interpetiolar, lanceolate [17].

[Flowers]: Bisexual, minute, white clustered in axillary cimes, consisting of 3-5 flowers. Calyx campanulate, with 4-8 irregular lobes. Petals 4-8, stalked, inserted at the margin of the disc. Filament filiform, anther oblong. Ovary inferior, tetra-locular, style filiform [2]. Flower ±0.6 cm,white or pale yellow-green, bisexual, in head-like clusters (cymes), at leaf axils. Individual flowers without stalk; main stalks 1.0-2.5 (-6) cm. Calyx bell-shaped with 5-8 short teeth, 5-8 free petals with short stalks, 10-16 slender stamens, petals and stamens attached to top of calyx tube around a thin disc, 1 slender style with 3-4 lobed stigma, all parts completely smooth [5]. Flowers in a sessile or peduncled cyme or solitary; bisexual, sessile or stalked, with 2 bracteoles; calyx (4-)5-8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

subulate, embracing 2 young leaves at the branch tip; leaving a brown scar ring when falling [2].

2

lobed, petals 5-8, free, clawed; stamens twice the number of petals, generally free, unequal in length; disc annular; ovary inferior or semi-inferior, 5-8 locular with 10-12 ovules in each cell (rarely 1-locular with 10-12 ovules), stigma discoid or capitate [17]. [Fruit): A globose capsule, 0.5 cm in diameter, calyx persistent at the tip, orange when mature [2]. Fruit 0.5-1.0 (1.8) cm, pale reddish-orange to dark red-purple, globose with persistent calyx teeth at top, slightly grooved fleshy with 1(2) large kidney-shaped seeds surrounded by a thin orange coating (aril) [5]. Fruit a 1-celled berry, small, pulpy, crowned by floral remains, 1(-5)-seeded, pink to red when ripe. Seed ellipsoid or reniform. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy, green, hypocotyl elongated; all leaves opposite, in some species densely and sharply dentate [17]. Flowering MarchApril in Thailand, fruiting September-November in Northern Australia [17].

I. Wood properties: The species Carallia is a medium-weight to nearly heavy-weight hardwood, with specific gravity of 640-1050 kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood buff or reddish-yellow, indistinct to moderately distinctly demarcated from the paler, sometimes yellowish-white sapwood. Grain straight, interlocked or slightly wavy; texture coarse and uneven due to the presence of large rays; wood with conspicuous silver grain on radial surfaces. Growth rings indistinct or absent; vessels medium-sized to moderately large, mostly solitary, but also in radial or tangential multiples of 2-3, usually blocked by tyloses, white deposits common; parenchyma moderately abundant to abundant; paratracheal aliform to confluent, and apotracheal in broad wavy bands, which often branch and diffuse but are not conspicuous; rays of 2 distinct sizes, medium-sized to very broad, the broad ones conspicuous; ripple marks absent [17].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Shrinkage upon air-drying is low and the wood seasons well, but end splitting and surface checking

3

should be prevented by protecting the ends against rapid drying out. It takes 2 and 5 months, repectively, to air-dry boards 13 mm and 38 mm thick. The wood is strong and it is easy to saw and plane and takes a good finish. Immediately after sawing the timber should be treated with anti-stain chemicals. To obtain the attractive silver grain, boards must be quarter-sawn, which limits their width to about 20 cm. The wood is durable under cover, but in contact with the ground or when used outside it is considered non -durable. It is susceptible to termite and marine borer attack. The absorption of preservatives is moderate (95-130kg/m³); the sapwood is attacked by Lyctus [17].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Carallia encompasses 15 species which occur in Madagascar and from Sri Lanka and India to Indochina and the Malesian region. However, most species have limited areas of distribution, but C. brachiata occurs throughout the area of distribution [17]. Occurs in Madagascar, India, Indochina and Malesia and towards the Solomon Islands and Northern Australia. In Vietnam C. brachiata occurs sparsely in tropical evergreen forest, particularly in secondary forests of most provinces; it needs humid soils and grows along stream banks. In China, India, Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam [2]; in dense forests of plains and hills, clear water or salt water formations [4]. It is a rare tree growing scattered in moist evergreen forests and in swamp forest, in lowland to montane forests up to 1800 m elevation a.s.l. Also found in primary, less often in

secondary forests, in mixed dipterocarp forest, freshwater swamp forest, kerangas (heath forest), on hills and ridges but mostly on peat soils or podsolic soils, rarely in savannas [17].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Occurs up to 1800 m elevation, in primary, less in secondary forests, rarely in savannas. Occurs along margins of streams and swamps

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined;

M. soil and site conditions : Preferably on peat soils or podsolic soils, needing humidity

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Wood moderately valued, used in construction and general implement manufacture [2]. Applications in general construction, house building, posts, cabinet work, furniture, flooring, musical insstruments, handles of spears or choppers, picture frames, ornamental veneers, panelling, packaging and boxes. Suitable for railway sleepers, transmission posts and all kinds of novelty items. Yields good fuelwood and charcoal [17]. [Non-Wood]: Applications in traditional medicine, e.g. juice generated by lacerating leaves believed to reduce fever; pulverized bark rubbed on body in case of smallpox. Leaves and bark used to treat

O. Cambodian wood classification : :3rd class [4]

P. Silviculture and management : Q. Propagation : Carallia may be propagated by by seed or by cuttings, however, it seems that seed soon loses its viability. Seed of C. brachiata achieved between 45% and 100% of germination in 1-3.5 months including one seed lot which did not start to germinate until after 52 days. Seedlings may be kept in the nursery for 2 years before outplanting in the field. Direct sowing was unsuccessful because of the sensitivity of seedlings against drought. Seedlings require shade and outplanting into open sites will be risky. Carallia coppices well and reproduces freely from root suckers [17].

R. Hazards and protection :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

sapraemia and and itching [17].

4

S. Conservation : Not an endangered species [17].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native in Madagascar, Sri Lanka, India, Indochina through Malesia to northern Australia, introduced in Papaua New Guinea .

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen, N.C. et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997 788 pp.

4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

5

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

27)

Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

34)

www.townsville.qld.gov.au/nad/PlantDisplay.asp?species (Internet source).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Carica papaya L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Carica papaya L.] ³

Carica papaya L.

B. English name (s)

³

papaya, pawpaw, melon tree [4]

C. Synonym

³

D. Other1

³

A. Latin name

(s)

lhong, doeum lahong (Cambodia); papaya, gedang, kates (Indonesia);

houng

(Laos);

papaya,

betek,ketalah,

(Malaysia); thimbaw (Burma); papaya, kapaya, lapaya (Philippines; malakor, loko mak uaithet (Thailand); du du (Vietnam) [6], papaye (French); lechoza (Venezuela, Puerto Rico, Philippines); fruta bomba (Cuba); mamâo (Brazil) [19].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

lðúg

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [-]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ lhông [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Violales Family: Caricaceae Gunus: Carica Species: Carica papaya L. Source :[4 ,

11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A shrub, 2-8 m tall [4]; a fast-growing tree-like herb, 2-10 m high, 10-30 cm in diameter; usually no branches, but it will branch if the top is cut off [6]; a tree, 6-8m tall, rarely branched, with a green, soft-wooded stem, covered by triangle-shaped scars and a leaf cluster on the top [13]. A largeleaved, fast-growing tree with soft wood, most varieties are dioecious, most important export variety is "solo", with female and hermaphrodite flowers. Dioecious varieties need one male tree for 25 females to insure sufficient fruit generation [19]. [Leaves]: Spirally arranged, clustered towards top of stem, with up to 1 m long leaf stalks and palmate or deeply lobed leaf plates, 25-75 cm in diameter, smooth, prominently veined and toothed [6]. Very large leaves on long stalks, digitally lobed [13]. [Flowers]: Cream-white to yellow, male, female or hermaphrodite on separate individuals and looking somewhat different [6]. Mostly dioecious, inflorescences in leaf axils, male ones branched and drooping, with narrow, funnel-shaped piped flowers, 4 cm long. Female inflorescences short and branched fork-style, flowers larger, yellowish white [13]. [Fruit]: A fleshy berry, 7-30 cm long and weighing up to 10 kg. Skin thin, smooth, turning from green to yellowish or orange when ripening. Flesh yellow to orange, soft, edible and sweet, with grey-black seeds along central cavity [6]. Fruit melon-like in form, quite different sizes, from 500g to 1000g, but also up to 10kg and more. The fruit varies in shape between globose-elliptic and oblong cucumbershaped. The flesh is whitish, deep yellow, orange or red with large differences in taste and a butterlike consistency. The inner part of the fruit cavity is covered by pepper-corn-sized, grey-black seeds

I. Wood properties: The stem does not lignify and has no wood-technologically usable properties [13].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Carica originated in Central America, in Mexico and Brazil. From both countries exist prehistorical descriptions of the fruit and its many medicinal uses. It occurs from the moist tropics to the subtropics as far as located outside frost temperatures [19]. It reached Asia by the end of the 18th century, today it is cultivated all-over Southeast Asia, Western Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. Not a forest species but widely cultivated in plantations and on farms [6,13].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : C. papaya is being cultivated in tropical and warm subtropical countries worldwide today [6,13]. Water requirements are high, minimum is 1500 mm/m² equally distributed over the year. But under drier climates mulching of the root area is recommended. Carica should be protected by windbreaks were winds or storms occur to prevent breaking of the stem [19]. It thrives in warm areas with sufficient rainfall and a temperature range of of 21-33ºC and occurs up to 1600 m or below the frost-risk zone [6].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

with a taste resembling cresse-weed [13].

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

Not determined

M. soil and site conditions : C. papaya tolerates any kind of well-drained and not too dry soil, but it is sensitive to waterlogging and flooding [6].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The stem does not produce wood [6]. [Non-Wood]: The ripe fruit is eaten fresh or used in salads, drinks, jam, candies. The green fruit is finely cut and used in salads or cooked as vegetable [13,19]. Through scarifying of the green fruit one obtains an alkaloid, carpaine [6] and also latex from which papain is extracted, purified and exported. Papain is the dried milky latex, it is a protein-spitting enzyme. A single plant can produce up to 500 g/year, but the usual quantity is 100-150g. Selling fresh fruit is economically more rewarding but papain is produced when fruit has no markets. It is normally used in stabilizing beer, tenderizing meat, in dental and practical medicine, as a vermifuge and for adding no-shrinkage properties to woolen and silk textiles [13,19]. The black seeds are edible, they have a sharp, spicy taste [27]. Nutritional value per 100g [27].

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Energy: 40kcal 160 kJ

3

Sugars 5.9 g Dietary fibre 1.8 fat 0.14 g protein 0.61 g vitamin A 55 micro gram 6% ß-carotene 276 microgram 3% thiamin vitamin B1 0.04mg 3% riboflavin vitamin B2 0.0mg 3% niacin vitamin B3 0.338 mg 2% vitamin B6 0.1mg 8% vitamin C 61.8 mg 103 % calcium 24 mg 2% iron 0.10 mg 1%

magnesium 10 mg 3% phosphorous 5 mg 1% potassium 257 mg 5% sodium 3 mg 0% Tea prepared from flowers and leaves is applied in cases of food poisoning and as antidote in case of poisoning. Damaged fruit as well as leaves make fodder for pigs. Leaves find pharmaceutical use because of the content of the alcaloid carpain which is administered against amoebes and bacterial infections [19]. Stem, leaves and roots are eaten in times of extreme food scarcity [4,19]. Papaya is said to have supporting action on fat combustion and also to increase production of hormons including sexual hormons in males and females [12]. In India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and other parts of the world papaya has been longtime used as a contraceptive and for abortion. These effects were confirmed in medical research with monkeys [27]. In ethnomedicine further uses are for the ripe fruit as treatment against ringworm, green fruit against high blood pressure and aphrodisiac. The fruit can be directly applied to superficial skin sores. The seeds are anti-inflammatory and analgesic and for the treatment of stomach ache. The roots are used as an analgesic [27].

O. Cambodian wood classification : Not included [18]

P. Silviculture and management : plantations the first fruit can be harvested towards the end of the first year. In the tropics flowering and fruiting occur almost continuously, while in subtropical climate the cold season interrupts fruit production. Yields are highest in the second year and may attain up to 60-80 t/ha under most favourable conditions. Yields decline, reaching 50t/ha in the third year,and harvesting gets more difficult with increasing height of stems. In commercial plantations trees are therefore kept for only 3-5 years [19]. Because of the softness of fruit and susceptibility to pressure they are predominantly consumed in the producing countries [13,19].

Q. Propagation : Normally papaya is propagated from seed. With fast-growing varieties 5 seedlings are set per planting hole or adequate number of seeds. As soon as the first flower buds appear after 5 months seedlings are thinned to leave just the desired number of male plants.

R. Hazards and protection : Carica papaya is threatened by a considerable number of noxious agents such as bacterial infections, canker, rots, fungal infections, damping off, fruit rot (Monilia sp.), nematodes, phytoplasmal diseases, as enumerated by the American Phytopathological Society [27].

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Planting space is variable according to soil and site conditions, between 2x3m to 2x3.5 m. In

4

S. Conservation : Not a threatened species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : All over the country on suitable soils

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : In tropical and warm subtropical climates the world over, native of Central America, introduced elsewhere.

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Becker S, 1958: The production of papain - an agricultural industry of tropical America. Economic Botany, 12:62-79. Brücher H, 1989: Useful plants of neotropical origin and their wild relatives. Useful plants of neotropical origin and their wild relatives., 296 pp.; [ref. at ends of chapters, many fig., many pl.]. Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991: Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts., 446 pp.; [and fig.]; many ref. Nair PKR, 1980: Agroforestry species. A crop sheets manual. Agroforestry species. A crop sheets manual., ix + 336 pp.; [1 fig., 20 pl. Publication no. ICRAF 003e]; many ref.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Conover RA, Litz RE, Malo SE, 1986: 'Cariflora' - a papaya ringspot virus tolerant papaya for South Florida and the Caribbean. Hortscience, 21:1072.

5

X. References: 4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

(Internet source)

27)

Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp?

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Cassia fistula L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Cassia fistula L.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³ ³

Cassia fistula L. [4] golden shower, golden rain tree, pudding-pipe tree; Indian laburnum [4,6, 9,13].

C. Synonym

³

C. excelsia Kunth[9]; C.rhombifolia Roxb.; Cathartocarpus fistulus (L.) Pers. [6]. Bactyrilobium fistula Willd., Cassia bonplandiana DC., Cassia fistuloides Collad., Cathartocarpus excelsus G. Don, Cathartocarpus fistuloides (Collad.) G. Don, Cathartocarpus rhombifolius G. Don

D. Other1

³

caneficier, casse en baton (French); riechhpühss(Cambodia); ngu, ngu sahwe, pwabet (Burma); khuun, rajaphruek (Thailand); khoun (general), Lom Leng (Sayaburi Prov.Laos); muóng hoà ng yén, bò cap nuóc (Vietnam) [2, 6].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

raCq
Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [-]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ riëch chhpühss [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Caesalpinioideae Gunus: Cassia L. Species: Cassia fistula L. Source :[2 ; 8 ; 13]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: An evergreen or deciduous tree, 10-15 m high, 40-50 cm diameter [2,4, 6,9]. Deciduous tree with rather narrow, deep crown and slender drooping branches [5]. Small to moderate-size tree up to 15 m tall [6]. Deciduous tree up to 20 m high, up to 50 cm diameter, with large crown; branches glabrous, spreading and drooping [8,13]. [Bark]: Bark pale brown, smooth or slightly cracked [5]. Bark greenish grey when young later turning reddish brown and peeling off in in scales [6]. Bark pale brown or dark grey, smooth or slightly cracked; inner bark reddish brown. Stipules small, usually falling early. Petioles 6-10 cm long, rhachis 15-20 cm long [8]. [Leaves]: Paripinnately compound, alternate, 15-25 cm long. Leaflets opposite, 3-8 pairs broad-elliptic to oblong elliptic, 7-12 cm long, 4-6 cm wide, top acute, rarely obtuse, base broadly cuneiform, glabrous on older trees. Petiole 7-10 cm long, petiolule 5-10 mm. Stipule small, caducous [2]. Leaf 3040 cm, with 3-8 pairs of leaflets, 7-12 x 4-8 cm, ovate-oblong, blunt at both ends, with silky hairs when young, but completely smooth when mature, without glands. [5]. Compound leaves 30-60 cm long on 7-10 cm long stalks, with 3-8 pairs of leathery leaflets, each about 12 cm long and 6 cm wide [6]. Leaves paripinnate, 30-40 cm long. Leaflets opposite, 3-8 pairs, broadly ovate-elliptic, 7-18 by 4-8 cm, base cuneate to obtuse, with silky hairs when young, glabrous when mature, without glands; secondary veins numerous; petiolules 4-10 mm long [8]. [Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, racemose, pendulous. Bract 8-10 cm long, caducous. Pedicel 15-25 mm long, glabrous. Sepals elliptic 5-10 mm long, tomentose outside. Petals yellow, broad elliptic, 30-

pubescent. Ovary and style pubescent, stigma small [2]. Flower 3.5-5.0 cm, bright yellow, in drooping, unbranched clusters, 20-40 cm long, usually on old branches, appearing just before the young leaves sprout. Stamens 3 cm long, with a swelling in the middle of the filaments, 3 cm long, other stamens 510 mm long, anthers smooth. Ovary and style with silky hairs [5]. Inflorescences axillary, clustered racemes, 20-40 cm long, pendent, lax. Bracts 8-10 mm long, caducous. Pedicels 15-35 mm long, glabrous. Flowers bright yellow. Sepals 5, ovate elliptic, 5-10 mm long, velutinous outside. Petals 5, broadly ovate, 20-35 by 10-15 mm, subequal, claw short. Stamens 10, unequal, 3 long ones with filaments 3-4 cm long, anthers 5 mm long opening by apical and basal slits, 4 shorter ones with filaments 6-10 mm long, anthers opening by basal pore, reduced stamens 3 with filaments 3-5 mm long and minute anthers. Ovary and style velutinous, stigma small [8]. [Fruit]: A pod, cylindrical, green when young, blackish-brown and indehiscent when mature, 20-60 cm long, 1.5-2.0 cm wide, glabrous, pendulous [2,6,13]. Fruit a pod, 20-60 x 1.5-2.0 cm, black, smooth, usually hanging straight downwards like tubes, not splitting, falling as one piece and breaking up into many small sections on the ground [5]. Pods, pendulous, terete, tube-like, 20-60 cm long, 1.5-2.0 cm in diameter, indehiscent, glabrous, black. Seeds numerous, 25-100, flat, elliptic, hard, 8-9 mm long. 5 mm wide, brown, glossy [2]. Seeds separated by spongy septa, elliptic, flattened, 8-9 by 4-6 mm, glossy, brown [8]. The orange seeds are

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

35 mm long, 10-15 mm wide, with short claw. Stamens 10, anthers and filaments unequal, anthers

2

tightly packed in a sweet, sticky pulp, eaten by birds and monkeys [9]. Flowering June-July [2]; flowering April to July, fruiting May to August [8]; main flowering season March-Mai [13].

I. Wood properties: Sapwood and heartwood distinct, hard, heavy and durable [2,9]. Sapwood white, heartwood yellow.[17] Specific gravity amounts to 835kg/m³ at 12% m.c.; grain straight to slightly interlocked, difficult to season, cracks, splits, warps, difficult to work (with traditional tools); used for manufacture and repair of traditional rural tools and implements, cart wheels, shafts, spokes, tool handles, posts for houses, rice pounders, axe handles, plates for machinery, haarows,ploughs, boat spars, tent poles toy and carvings. C.fistula yields good charcoal. Due to the limited availability of timber the trade is also limited to local markets [12,17]. The wood is heavy to very heavy, very hard and strong with straight to slightly interlock-grained and medium coarse-textured. It is diffuse porous with fairly distinct growth rings. The heartwood is yellowish-red to brick-red or reddish-brown. The wood is difficult to season, as it develops cracks, splits and warps; green conversion and stacking under cover is recommended . The timber is very durable but it is also difficult to work, saw and machine [12].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Presumably a native species of the forests of Burma, India and Sri Lanka (9,13); distributed in Egypt, India, Nepal, China, Indochina, Laos and Vietnam [2], Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia [8,12]. The limits in north-south direction are approximately 30ºN to 10ºS. A tree of the open forest formations of tropical Asia, occurring in moist forest, mixed deciduous and dry deciduous dipterocarp forest,and coniferous forest, often cultivated as roadside tree [4,5,8,12].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

In Indonesia found in lowland monsoon forests associated with Acacia leucophloea, (Roxb.) Willd.,

3

Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr., and Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. [16] but also in dry-deciduous forest [9].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : C. fistula grows in a dry (sub)tropical climate, with average annual temperature of 25ºC., mean annual rainfall over 1200 mm/m², 4 months dry season. It is a neutral tree inclined towards light-demanding, young trees slightly shade-demanding and drought-tolerant. Occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl [2,8]. Altitudinal range 0-1200 with 500-3000 mm/ m² of rain distributed over the summer with 2 peaks. The dry season should last 4-5 months with a mean annual temperature of 18ºC-29ºC [12]. C.fistula is adaptable and will tolerate, at least survive, drought, fire, weeds, shade, and react with formation of suckers or coppicing after having been cut [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : The soil tecture should be medium with unimpeded drainage, and a slightly acid soil reaction. Suitable soils are granitic, lateritic, sandstone or tropical soils, but C.fistula will survive in areas with brackish water. C.fistula occurs in dry forest and in moist forest, it develops a shallow root system, it is drought but not frost hardy, it can survive wind, fire, drought weeds and shade [2,8,12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The reddish heartwood is used in construction, for implements, and agricultural tool-making. [2,8,9]. The wood is used for ploughing tools and pillars [4]. C. fistula provides a useful timber which is widely used on a local scale within its natural area of distribution. The wood is used for wheels and shafts of carts, turnery, tool handles, ploughs, harrows and rollers, house building posts, rice pounders, bows, for boat spars, and bed plates for machinery; also for tent poles and tent pegs, toys and carvings

for making high-grade charcoal and for boat building, furniture, pick-axe and axe

handles, mallet heads, railway keys and similar articles where strength and toughness are primary considerations. Although C. fistula timber has very good properties, its limited availability means that it is not widely traded on a commercial scale [12,27]. [Non-Wood]: TThe fruits, because of the pleasant smell, are used to perfume tobacco leaves [4]. The pulp of fruits and the bark are often chewed with betel nut leaves. The marrow is edible and an additive (manna) to laxatives, as are the dried leaves [13]. Santal people of India eat the flowers. The bark is rich in tannin and yields a dye. The bark of C. fistula has a tannin content of about 10-12%

C. fistula is a source of natural dyes. A powder prepared from C. fistula seeds has pesticidal properties while extracts from the flowers have been reported to have fungicidal properties [12]. C.fistula is also used in local medicine as remedy after scorpion stings and snake bites.[2,4,8]. Pods and seed used as a laxative in the Middle East and India [8,20]. In Indonesia the flowers and leaves are used as a purgative and the roots for treating scabies and skin ulcers.[9] Because of the rich and brilliant flowering C. fistula is called the golden shower [9] and it is frequently planted for ornamental purposes[8,9]. The roots, bark, seeds and leaves of this species are used in traditional medicine. They are reported to have a wide range of medicinal properties and are used to treat many ailments. Many chemical compounds have been isolated. An antidiabetic herbal drug preparation from this species has been tested [12]. In Ayurveda medicine and practice medications are applied which have been manufactured from the seeds, buds,and fruit. The seeds are said to be an emetic. Comparable applications in traditional medicine are reported from Zimbabwe and Ghana. In Est Asia the uncooked pod pulp is used against constipation, in the Caribbean Islands pulp and leaves are used for treatment of a variety of afflictions [20,22].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(CSIR, 1948). It can be a substitute for wattle (Acacia spp.) tannin [12].

4

(Others]: In Sri Lanka the flowers are offered in religious ceremonies in pagodas [12]. The Golden Shower Tree, called Dok Khuen, is the national flower of Thailand, indicating the appreciation of the people for the rich flowering of this species. It is also the flower of the State of Kerala in India. In ceremonies in honor of the God Vishnu flowers of C. fistula are part of the ritual [20, 22,27]. C. fistula is an ornamental tree (Venkataramany, 1968) that can also be planted for restoration of degraded lands. Since C. fistula is not palatable to domestic animals , it may be suitable for reforestation of areas which have become overgrazed [12].

"Seeds contain 24% crude protein, 4% crude fat, 7% crude fiber, and 50% carbohydrates with a 81% in vitro digestibility. The foliage contains 16% crude protein, 40% carbohydrates with a 88% in vitro digestibility [20].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : C.fistula is a slow-growing tree, but flowering at an early age [5]. Stand establishment can be achieved with stump plants, planting stock, also by direct sowing, less fast by natural regeneration. However, it is seldom raised in plantation and yield data do not exist [12].

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Q. Propagation :

5

C. fistula is not grown in plantations therefore yield information and management experience are rare[12]. However, direct sowing, stump plants and raising nursery stock from fresh seeds are viable methods. Planting for ornamental purposes is still the predominant reason for raising planting stock from seedlings [9].

R. Hazards and protection : Of 8 known insect species 2 are really dangerous and need control: Eurema blanda and Xyleutes persona. E. blanda feeds on young plants in nurseries and at times migrates in large swarms. The larvae of X. persona, the bee hole borer, bore into the stems of young plants or into branches of older trees. It occurs in Sri Lanka, Burma and China, the moths emerging from February until October. Catopsilia pomona form crocale, Catopsilia pomona, Catopsilia pyranthe, Indarbela quadrinotata, Nephopterix rhodobasalis are controllable. Felling and burning affected trees seems the best control measure [12]. Three species of fungi can cause damage on leaves of grown trees and seedlings, but can be controlled with fungicides: Glomerella cingulata, Khuskia oryzae and Phyllactinia guttata, are causing mildew on leaves [12].

S. Conservation : not an endangered species [9].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Pan-tropical to subtropical ornamental tree, predominantly in Asia and SE Asia, native, introduced and naturalized in many tropical countries of America and Africa [5,13].

V. Miscellaneous4 : Genus Cassia is a regular component of open, dry forests. Many of its species produce beautiful flowers, often the year aound. Besides C. fistula the following are widely planted and cultivated: C. grandis, a large tree from tropical America, with pink flowers; C. javanica, a native of Java, with pinkish-white flowers; C. marginata from Sri Lanka and India, with pink-coloured flowers in July and August; C. moschata, a tall tree in tropical America, flowers orange to salmon-pink; C. multijuga, from tropical America, flowers bright yellow in upright racemes; C. nodosa, from Malaysia, flowers bright pink in large tufts along the entire shoot length [13]. FAO (Gohl, 1981) reports the leaves to contain, on a zero moisture content basis, 17.6 g protein, 66.8 g total carbohydrate, 30.2 g fiber, 7.8 g ash, 3 270 mg Ca, and 330 mg P per 100 g. Flowers contain

and rhamnose. Leaves contain rhein, rheinglucoside, and sennosides A and B. The rootbark contains tannin, phlobaphenes, and oxyanthraquinone substances, which probably consist of emodin and chrysophanic acid; also contains (bark and heartwood) fistuacacidin, barbaloin, and rhein. Stembark contains lupeol, beta-sitosterol, and hexacosanol" [20].

W. Further readings5 : Murthy VK, Rao TVP, Venkateswaran V 1967: Chemical examination of Cassia fistula L. Tetrahedron 23(1):514-518 Misra TN, Singh RS, Pande HS, Pandey, RP, 1996: Chemical constituents of hexane fraction of Cassia fistula pods. Fitoterapia 67(2): 173-174;6 ref. Krishnamurthy T, 1993:Minor forest products of India. New Delhi, India:Oxford&IHB Vishnava MM, Tripathi AK, Gupta KR 1993: Constituents of Cassia fistula roots. Fitoterapia 64(1): 93;14 ref. Abraham KJ, Daniel M, Sabins SD, 1988: Phytoalexins of Cassia fistula L. and Morinda tomentosa Heyme: National Academy of Science Letters 11(4): 101-102;5 ref.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

ceryl alcohol, kaempferol, rhein, and a bianthroquinone glycoside, which on hydrolysis, yields fistulin

6

Barthakur, NN, Arnold, NP, Alli,I, 1995: The Indian Laburnum(Cassia fistula L.) fruit. an analysis of chemical constituents. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 47(1):55-62[1 pl]; 22 ref. Khanna, RK, Subhash, Chandra, 1996: Forest/Domestic waste as a source of natural dyes. J. of Economic & Taxonomic Botany 20(2):497-500; Kashiwada Y, Iizuka H, Yoshioka K, Che RF, Nonaka G, Nishioka I 1990: Tannins and related compounds, XCIII. Occurrence of enantiomeric proanthocyanidins in the Leguminosae plants Cassia fistula L. and C. javanica. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 38(4):888-893;13 ref. Fagbayide JA and Fawusi MOA 1994: Comparative studies in seed germination and seedling management in Cassia fistula L. and Cassia nodosa (Buch-Ham ex Roxb). Indian Journal of Agriculture Research 28(2):133-140. Chowdhury SA, Kamal AKMM, Alam MN, Gafur MA, Ray BK, Ahmed K, Faruq O, 1996. Sennoside, B. rich active concentrate from Cassia fistula. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 31(2):91-97.

Irwin HS, 1964. Monographic Studies in Cassia (Leguminosae - caesalpinioidae) I Sect. Xenocalyx Memoirs, New York Botanical Garden, 12(1):1-114.

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IMorimoto S, Nonaka GI, Chen RF, Nishioka I, 1988. Tannins and related compounds. LXI. Isolation and structures of novel bi- and triflavonoids from the leaves of Cassia fistula L. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 36(1):39-47; 9 ref.

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Prakash A, Rao J, Gupta SP, Behra J, 1993. Evaluation of botanical pesticides as grain protectants against rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae Linn. Botanical pesticides in integrated pest management., 360365; 17 ref.

Pearson and Brown, 1981 Rao and Purkayastha, 1972,

X. References: 2) 4)

NGUYEN et al. 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp. DY PHON, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915

pp. 5)

Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest

Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

6)

Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,

Bangkok, 234 pp. 8)

Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field

guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands 12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

13)

Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical

Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp. 17)

Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp. 18)

Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in Khmer and

English) Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 97 pp. 19)

Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef

Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp. 20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD). 22)

International Legume Database and Information Service (ILDIS).

27)

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?sciname=. (Internet source).

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Cassia javanica L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Cassia javanica L.] ³

Cassia javanica L.

B. English name (s)

³

pink shower (Engl.) [17]

C. Synonym

³

D. Other1

³

A. Latin name

(s)

Johar (trade name); bobondelan (Indonesia-Sundanese); boking-boking (Indonesia-Sumatera); trengguli (IndonesiaJavanese) bebusok, busok-busok; (Malaysia-Peninsular); antsoan (Philippines-Bikol); bo pruek, (Cambodia); khoun loy, (Laos); chaiyaphruk, kalapaphruk (Thailand-central); kalaphruk (Thailand-northern); b[uf] c[aj]p. [17] Muóng Hoa Dào (Vietnam)[2].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

bURBwk

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [-]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ bô prük [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Caesalpinioideae Gunus: Cassia L. Species: Cassia javanica L. Source :[ 17]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A medium-sized tree, deciduous, 7-15 m, [4]; 10-20 m in height, and 60 cm or more in diameter. Crown large, umbellate [2,5]. A semi-deciduous, small to medium-sized, sometimes fairly large tree up to 25 (-40) m tall; bole often curved, up to 60 cm in diameter, small buttresses sometimes present, trunk of young trees and branches either smooth or spiny [17]. [Bark: Brownish grey, not fissured and bearing many lenticels. Inner bark pink, 6-8 mm thick. Twigs tomentose, then glabrescent and brown [2]. Bark surface smooth sometimes shallowly longitudinally fissured, greyish to pale brown or red-brown, sometimes blackish mottled, inner bark yellow to orange [17]. [Leaves]: Paripinnately compound. Leaflets 6-10 pairs, ovate, top obtuse or slightly pointed, few tomentum when young, then glabrous, 5-6 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. Lateral veins 15-18 pairs, slightly evident; venules reticulate. Petiole 10-15 cm long. Stipule acutely ovate, blade cordate [2]. Leaflets 2.5-5.0x1.5-2.5 cm [5]. Leaves alternate, distichous, with up to 17/-20) pairs of leaflets; stipules 2-lobed, caducous [17]. [Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, consisting of many corymbs, 15 cm or more, long. Rhachis pubescent. Bract looks like stipule. Bud globose or ovoid. Sepals nearly equal, sparsely pubescent at the back. Petals ovate, 20-25 mm long and 9-11 mm wide, apex obtuse or mucronate, light pink. Stamens 10, unequal. Ovary slightly pubescent, stigma obtuse [2]. Flowers in upright clusters behind leaves [5].

calyx deeply divided, lobes firm, imbricate, reflexed; petals widely spreading, whitish to reddish or buff; stamens 10, irregularly accrescent towards the abaxial side of the flower, longest ones Sshaped; ovary superior, linear and curved, stigma terminal or subterminal [17]. [Fruit]: A pod, cylindrical, slightly articulate, 35 cm long or more, 15-20 mm wide, containing a lot of large, ovate seeds [2]. Pods 20-60 cm, black, cylindrical, not splitting. [5]. Fruit a woody, pendulous, short-stiped, linear pod with septa between the numerous seeds, indehiscent, dark brown to black. Seed brown, smooth and glossy, lying transversely in the pod [17]. Seedling with epigeal germination, cotyledons emergent, semi-fleshy; first few leaves arranged spirally. C. javanica trees show Troll´s architectural model, with sympodial growth and all axes plagiotropic, the architecture being built by their continual superposition. In East Java C. javanica flowers in October-December and fruits in the dry season. It has been observed flowering and fruiting in a mast fruiting year in Peninsular Malaysia [17). Flowering in October-November, fruiting in February-April [2].

I. Wood properties: Wood light yellow with coarse grain, with poor resistance to termites and other insects. C. javanica yields a light-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 400-875kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood pale yellow when fresh, turning red or pale orange brown with age, demarcated sharply or not sharply from

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Flowers in an axillary or terminal, many-flowered, subsessile, distinctly bracteate raceme, 5-merous,

2

the 2-5 cm wide sapwood; grain is interlocked; texture moderately fine, taste bitter [17]. Growth rings not always distinct , the boundaries indicated by a fine line of parenchyma forming a more or less distinct, but interrupted ring; vessels medium-sized to moderately large, solitary and in radial pairs, reddish gummy deposits in many vessels; parenchyma abundant, apotracheal diffuse, and paratracheal vasicentric, aliform to confluent, the latter connecting 2-4 vessels; rays very fine, not visible to the naked eye, ripple marks occasionally locally just discernible. Shrinkage of the wood is low; it seasons well with little or no degrade. The wood is hard and strong. It works well and finishes well. The sapwood is very perishable, the heartwood moderately durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground, but very durable for interior work. The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetle attack [17].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Cassia in the narrow sense comprises about 30 species with a pantropical distribution. Only a few species occur naturally in tropical Asia and only 3 in Malesia. It occurs in India, Burma, Indochina, Southern China, Thailand and throughout Malesia. [2,4,17] (In contrast to the country called Malaysia, Malesia defines a larger region of homogenous botanical structure including the Malay Archipelago, Indonesia, Pacific Islands, Thailand, Indochina, Burma, southern China and Queensland in northeast Australia. (Whitmore, T. C. 1993)). C. javanica has been planted for so long that the natural area of distribution is difficult to reconstruct. Geographically the north-south limits of the area of distribution are given as 4ºN to 21ºS. [12]. C. javanica is also planted as an ornamental tree in Central and South America. C. grandis L.f. and C. fistula L. have been introduced into the Malesian area for ornamental

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purposes [17].

3

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : C. javanica is usually found in more open sites in the forest, up to 400 m altitude, but can also occur in closed evergreen primary forest. It is often naturalized in secondary forests close to locations where it has been planted. C. javanica is not resistant to fire [17]. It is light-demanding and fast growing, occuring along streams, at mountain foots, or at the edges of tropical evergreen or deciduous forests, below 800 m a.s.l.[2]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : unknown

M. soil and site conditions : The tree likes humid, deep soil, usually occurs in mixed stands with Alangium kurzii, Schima crenata and Syzygium zeylanicum [2]. In Java it has been reported from fertile volcanic loams, and from marshy, sandy and limestone soils [17].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Cassia javanica L. is the only species with some importance as a timber tree [17]. The wood of a few Cassia species, particularly C. javanica, is used for general construction, furniture and cabinet making. The wood is also suitable for posts, sawn or hewn timbers for house construction, smaller pieces for fuelwood or charcoaling [12]. Some of the introduced ornamental species may grow into medium-sized trees and may provide timber of larger dimensions when cut. [Non-Wood]:C. javanica is also an attractive ornamental tree [2,17]. It is extensively used as an ornamental and roadside tree, particularly forms of subsp. agnes (de Wit.) K. Larsen with larger flowers. Some species are highly valued medicinal plants (e.g. C.fistula). The fruit is considered a laxative, seeds can be chewed with betel. The wood is used in a decoction for young mothers [4]. The pods and seeds are used in local medicine as a purgative[17]. The bark has been used for tanning leather, although the tannin content is rather low with about 12% [17]. In another application the bark and seeds are used as antipyretic [22). In agroforestry land use systems C. javanica can be planted as a shade and fuelwood tree but it is also valuable in view of its soil improving properties [12].

O. Cambodian wood classification :

P. Silviculture and management : No data are available on experience gained with the plantations established in Java. C. javanica tolerates shade and extended drought; it can coppice and pollard; seed storage is orthodox but for a limited time only. Stand establishmen succeeds best with stump plants, through natural regeneration or with planting stock [17].

Q. Propagation : "C. javanica can be propagated by seed or by vegetative means. There are 5700-8400 dry seeds /kg. Pods can easily be collected from the ground, but have to be opened with a chopping knife. Seed storage is variable: Fresh seed can only be stored for 6 weeks in airtight containers, but storing dry seeds for over one year has also been reported. Seeds start to germinate after 7 days and 80% of the seedlings appear within 14-30 days. The germination rate is about 70%; 50% of the seeds sown yield good plants. Other records, however, show a germination rate of 20-65% in 5 days to well over 1 year. For India, where late and prolongued germination is a problem, it is reported that mechanical scarification may be used to overcome seed dormancy. The planting of large cuttings of C. javanica in the Philippines was unsuccessful as only 10% of the cuttings survived. Air-layering failed altogether [17].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

not included

4

R. Hazards and protection : S. Conservation : not an endangered species nor threatened by genetic erosion [17]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Pantropical, in India, Burma, Southern China, Indochina, Thailand and throughout Malesia where it is naturalized; C. javanica is a native species of Java [17].

V. Miscellaneous4 : "C. javanica trees show Troll´s architectural model, with sympodial growth and all axes plagiotropic, the architecture being built by their continual superposition. In East Java, C. javanica flowers in October-December und bears fruit in the dry season. It has been observed flowering and fruiting in a mast fruiting year in Peninsular Malaysia. Until the beginning of the 1980´s, Cassia was considered to be a very large genus of over 500 species, but then the genus was split into 3 genera: Cassia s.s. includes far fewer species than the

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

latter 2 genera, that have approximately 270 and 250 species, respectively. C. javanica is very

5

polymorphic and several subspecies are distinguished, e.g., C. agnes (de Wit.) Brenan, C. bartonii F.M." [17] C. javanica is worth trying as a timber plantation tree. It is considered to grow comparatively fast and may provide timber of fair quality. In addition it is an attractive tree, offering the potential of combining its uses as an ornamental and timber tree.

W. Further readings5 : Guzman E de, Umali RM, Sotalbo ED, 1986: Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. Manila, Philippines: JMC Press Inc. Gupta RK, 1993: Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH. Hocking D, 1993: Trees for drylands. Trees for drylands. xiii + 370 pp.; [Originally published by Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India]; 12 pp. of ref. Luna RK, 1996: Plantation trees. Plantation trees. xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections]. Singh SP, 1989: Wasteland development. Wasteland development. xx + 227 pp.; 96 ref.

Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S, eds. 1998: Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No 5(3). Timber trees: lesser-known timbers. Leiden, Netherlands; Backhuys Publishers. Todaria NP, Negim AK, 1992: Pretreatment of some Indian Cassia seeds to improve their germination. Seed Science and Technology, 20(3):583-588; 10 ref.

X. References: 2)

NGUYEN et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.

4)

DY Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

13) Baertels, A.1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

17) SOSEF, M.S.M., HONG, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Cassia siamensis (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Cassia siamensis (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Cassia siamensis (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby

³

Thailand shower [2], Bombay blackwood, ironwood, Kassaof tree, kassod tree, Siamese acacia, Siamese senna, Thai copper pod, yellow cassia [5]

C. Synonym

³

Cassia arayatensis Naves, Cassia florida Vahl, Cassia siamea Lam., Senna sumatrana Roxb., Senna siamea [5]

D. Other1

³

cassia (France) [5] - minjiri (Bangladesh) [5] - johar, johor (Indonesia) [5] - beati, kassod, kilek, manjakonnai, manje-konna, minjori, minjri, ponavari, sima-tangedu, simaiavari, simethangadi, vakai, vakoi (India) [5] - khi lek (Laos) [5] - wa (Sri Lanka) [5] - johor, juah, petai belalang (Malaysia) [5] - casia (Nepal) [5] - robles, Thailand shower (Philippines) [5] - minjri (Pakistan) [5] - khi lek ban, khi lek yai, kilek, phak chili (Thailand) [5] - mu[oof]ng (Vietnam) [5]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

1

GgÁan Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ angkanh' [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguminosales/Fabales Family: Caesalpiniaceae Gunus: Cassia Species: Cassia siamensis Source :[ 5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium-sized evergreen tree with an average height of 20 m [2] (5 m in arid conditions [2]). Crown dense, round and spreading. Bole 2-3 m tall with a DBH of 50 cm [2] at maturity. Root system shallow with a radius of 7 m [8] in the 1st year, later up to 15 m [8], which can easily be uprooted by strong winds. [Bark] The bark is smooth, grey and slightly longitudinally fissured. . [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, pinnately compound, 23-33 cm [8] (15-30 cm [5]) long, with slender, green-reddish, tinged axis. Leaflets in 6-12 pairs [8] (6-14 [5]) on short stalks of 3 mm, oblong, 3-7 cm long, 12-20 mm wide, dark green, rounded at both ends, with a tiny bristle tip. [Flowers]: The flowers are in clusters, upright at ends of twigs, large branched, 20-30 cm long, 13 cm broad, with many bright yellow flowers 3 cm across, with five similar flower parts. Outer flower leaves (=sepals) overlapping like roof tiles, blunt at the apex, inner flower leaves (=petals) subequal to heteromorphic, yellow. Male organs (=stamens) 10, facing away from the flower axis; filaments straight and not more than twice as long as the anthers. Female organs (=ovary) superior, linear and curved. Flowering period is July-December, fruiting January-April. [Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are numerous, long, narrow, 5-25 cm long, 12-20 mm broad, flat, dark brown, strap shaped, with a long stalk, cylindrical to compressed, dehiscent (=opening spontaneously when ripe), with partitions between the numerous seeds. Seeds are bean-shaped, shiny, dark brown,

[2, 4, 5, 8]

I. Wood properties: Medium-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 0.6-1.01 g/cm³ [8] at 15% moisture content. The heartwood is black-brown with paler streaks, sharply demarcated from the 6 cm wide, pale sapwood. The grain is interlocked and occasionally straight. Texture is slightly coarse but even. shrinkage of the wood during seasoning is moderate to high but it seasons with little degradation. Wood is resistant to termites, strong, durable, difficult to work, with a tendency to pick up in planing and it takes a high polish. Sapwood is permeable to pressure impregnation. "Wood sawdust can cause irritation when in contact with the skin" [5]. The sapwood should be removed as soon as possible after felling to prevent insect attack of the heartwood. [5, 8]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : C. siamensis originates from the secondary forest formation of plains in Southeast Asia but was cultivated in the other tropical regions of the world in various types of lowland forests. In Cambodia, it is planted in the big cities as a shading tree. [3, 4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

8 mm long, with distinct areole.

2

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : C. siamensis can grow at altitudes of up to 1,380 m a.s.l. [5] (0-1,000 m [8], 300-500 (-1000 m) [9]) under a wide variety of climatic conditions ranging from humid (mean annual precipitation: 2,800 mm [5]) to arid (400-500 mm [5, 8]). In India a minimum of 1,000 mm [5] rainfall is recommended for a good development. However it is particularly suited to lowland tropics with a monsoon climate. It can endure dry seasons with a length of 4-6 months [5] (4-8 months [8]). Mean annual temperature: 2124°C [4] (20-28°C [5]). Absolute maximum temperature is 24-36°C [5]. Regarding light requirements it is a neutral tree, inclining towards light demanding [4] (it is a strong light demander [5]). It is susceptible to cold and frost. When mature, it is drought-resistant, but seedlings cannot withstand prolonged drought, and are also susceptible to fire" [5]. It will grow only when its roots have access to groundwater. [4, 5, 8, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (B), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d). [7]

M. soil and site conditions : The tree is able to grow on a variety of soils but prefers moist but well drained, deep and fertile calcarous soils in flat terrain and hill slopes with a light to medium texture and a pH of 5.5-7.5 [2]. It grows even fast in comparatively infertile soils. Denuded shallow soils are also tolerated but its growth will stagnate in arid areas, with the tree becoming stunted after 4 to 5 years. Coppice growth will also Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

be reduced. It is sensitive to poor drainage but it will grow only when its roots have access to

3

groundwater. C. siamensis is suitable for use on fluvisols, vertisols, xerosols/calcisols, aerisol/alisols, alfisols, ferrasols, lateritic soils and nitosol/nitisols according to FAO classification. "In West Bengal, it has been grown in lateric soil after deep soil working" [5]. It is not suited for infertile soils due to its inability to fix nitrogen. [2, 4, 5, 8]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The high quality timber is used for sawn timber, wooden tools, poles, posts, general construction, cabinetwork, pulpwood, fuelwood and charcoal. In Thailand, heartwood is used as a tranquilizer and antipyretic for the treatment of venereal diseases. [2, 3, 5, 9] [Non-wood]: Leaves and seeds are used as fodder but are toxic for pigs. Young leaves and flowers are used in curry. Leaves are also used in medicine as a laxative for the treatment of leucorrhoea, and as a diuretic, flowers as an antihypertensive, tranquilizer and laxative. Especially in Cambodia a decoction is used against scabies. It provides very useful mulch, especially in alley cropping systems.

A well-grown tree can yield 500 kg/year of fresh leaves. The tree is also a source for honey and tannin. [2, 9] [Others]: It is used as a host-tree for sandalwood (Santalum album), and as a nurse crop for Swietenia mahogani, to reduce borer attack. It is suited for intercropping, hedgerows, windbreaks, shelterbelts, erosion control planting and for shade cocoa-, coffee- and tea-plantations. It is a common shade tree, in many South East Asian towns and cities. It has been used to revegetate degraded agricultural land and is planted in Taungya systems. It may be used as a shade tree for coffee. C. siamensis does not fix nitrogen through Rhizobium symbiosis in nodules, although there is some evidence that nitrogen-fixing activity may occur in the warty, lenticellate bark. Thus it is not recommended for use on infertile soils [5]. [2, 5]

O. Cambodian wood classification : Luxury Class [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: C. siamensis originates from the secondary forest formation of plains in Southeast Asia but was cultivated in the other tropical regions of the world in various types of lowland forests. In Cambodia, it is planted in the big cities as shading tree.

trenching, microcatchments) helps in the establishment phase and accelerates the growth for trees planted in semi-arid areas. In fuelwood plantations, spacing ranges from 1 x 1 m to 1 x 3 m [5] (2 x 2 m = 2,000 seedlings [2]). In hedges used for alley cropping or as a shelterbelt, spacing between plants in the row should be 0.25-0.5 m. [Management]: C. siamensis does not fix nitrogen. It is very fast growing. A height increment of 2.5 m/year has been recorded, and in West Bengal it can attain a height of 7.9 m with a stem girth of 24.1 cm in 3 years [5]. It reaches 15 m in height and 15 cm in DBH after 10 years [2]. Unless carefully pruned, the tree ages ungracefully, the crown is becoming straggling and misshapen with upright and drooping branches. It shows high coppicing abilities and is suitable for pollarding. In fuelwood plantations the wood yield amounts up to 10-15 m³/ha/yr [2] or 74-198 t/ha at a rotation of 7-10 years. It is used as a host-tree for sandalwood (Santalum album), and as a nurse crop for Swietenia mahogani, to reduce borer attack. It is also important for intercropping, hedgerows, windbreaks, shelterbelts, erosion control planting and to shade cocoa-, coffee- and tea-plantations. [2, 3, 4, 5, 8]

Q. Propagation : Propagation is practiced by stump plants, direct sowing and planting stock. "The seed storage behaviour is orthodox. There are 35,000-45,000 seeds/kg [8]. Mature seeds have a hard seed coat,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Establishment]: Weeding is necessary in the 1st and 2nd year of growth. Moisture conservation (e.g.

4

and scarification is required. Immersion in concentrated sulphuric acid for 10-30 minutes has been proven to be effective. With the 1st method, germination is about 90% within 60 days. Germination of untreated seeds is about 75% in 4-29 days [8] (40% [2]). Viability can be maintained for 3 years in hermetic storage at room temperature with 11-15% moisture content" [8]. "Net seedlings required per ha: 2,500. Number of seeds needed: 10,420 seeds or 0.26 kg/ha. Seed purity: 95%. Germination rate: 40%. Rate of seedling-loss: 20% (3,000) in planting site, 10% (3,334) in transit and 20% (4,168) at the nursery" [2]. [2, 5, 8]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Insect pests: C. siamensis is fairly resistant to termites but is susceptible to scale insects, caterpillars (Eurema blanda) and defoliating insects. Some of these pests are: Catopsilia crocale, which defoliates young plants; Xyleutes persona, a bee-hole borer; Indarbela sp., a caterpillar which damages bark; Celosterna scabrator, which bores tunnels in the stem and roots; and caterpillars of Labdia sp., which bore into dry pods. Other pests include Catopsilia pyranthe, Diapromorpha belteata, Eurema blanda, Frankliniella schultzei, Indarbela quadrinotata, Megalurothrips distalis, Scirtothrips bispinosus, Thrips tabaci, Xyleutes persona, Zeuzera coffeae. "It has been reported that the sapwood should be removed as soon as possible after felling to prevent insect attack of the heartwood" [8]. [5, 8] [Diseases]: Fungi: "Among the fungal diseases, Ganoderma lucidum causes spongy-rot and butt rot. Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Fomes lucidus is a parasitic wound fungus that invades the tree through the roots, causing a white

5

soft decay in the lower stem. After the tree dies, the blood red sporophore appears. Phaeolus manihotis (Polyporus baudonii) is a serious root disease causing dieback" [5]. [Others]: Erianthemum ulugurense has been reported to grow on the tree as a parasitic plant. "The major disadvantage of the species is that it has a shallow root system, which make it susceptible to strong winds" [5]. [Protection]: "Suggested control of pests and diseases includes biological control by parasites and predators, slow release insecticides, use of pheromones and silvicultural methods" [5].

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : It is common in Kompong Thom, Siem Reap and Kampot [7]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, S-India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam [Introduced]: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, Kenya, Nigeria, Puerto Rico, Sierra Leone, South Africa, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Virgin Islands (US), Zambia [3, 5, 8]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [History]: It is widely planted throughout the tropics and is locally naturalized. Plantations were established in the 1920s in Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone, mainly for its quality fuelwood. [8]

W. Further readings5 : Banik S, Nadaf AB, Bhosale LJ, 1995. Growth performance of Cassia siamea and Acacia auriculiformis plantations under pit method. Journal of Non-Timber Forest Products, 2(1/2):63-66; 3 ref. [5]

[8]

Farnsworth N.R. Bunyapraphatsara N. (1992) Thai Medicinal Plants Recommended for Primary Health Care System. [9]

Kannan D, Paliwal K, 1995. Effect of nursery fertilization on Cassia siamea seedling growth and its impact on early field performance. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 8(2):203-212; 21 ref. [5]

Kiepe P, 1995. Effect of Cassia siamea hedgerow barriers on soil physical properties. Geoderma, 66(1-2):113-120; 15 ref. [5]

Kiepe P, 1996. Cover and barrier effect of Cassia siamea hedgerows on soil conservation in semi-arid Kenya. Soil Technology, 9(3): 161-171. [5]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Faridah Hanum I, van der Maesen LJG (eds.). 1997. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11. Auxillary Plants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands.

6

Padma V, Satyanarayana G, Reddy BM, 1996. Studies on pre-sowing seed treatments in three species of Cassia. Seed Research, 24(1): 51-54. [5]

Pradhan PC, Behera BP, 1997. Efficiency of planting methods on establishment of Cassia siamea in slopy red lateritic soils of Orissa. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 25(1): 86-87. [5]

Rath B, Pradhan PC, Behera BD, Sahu D, 1997. Efficacy of planting methods and establishment of Cassia siamea in slopy and red laterite soil of Orissa. Environment and Ecology, 15(1): 49-51. [5]

Timyan J. 1996. Bwa Yo: important trees of Haiti. South-East Consortium for International Development. Washington D.C. [8]

Webb DB, Wood PJ, Henman GS. 1984. A guide to species selection for tropical and sub-tropical plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers No. 15, 2nd edition. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford University Press. [8]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

X. References:

7

[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuel wood Research and Development Project. Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA. [5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [7] AUTHOR, 1973: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-nam (Fascicule 18th). Paris. [8] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source). [9] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Casuarina equisetifolia L]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Casuarina equisetifolia L] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Casuarina equisetifolia L

³

coast she-oak, whistling pine, Australian pine, Australian oak, horsetail beefwood, swamp oak, beefwood, ironwood [1], redwood tree [2], Australian beefwood, beach she-oak, beefwood tree, casuarina, common ru, horsetail casuarina, horsetail tree, ironwood, sea pine, she oak, swamp she oak, wild pepper [4], bull oak, whistling pine [9]

C. Synonym

³

Casuarina litorea L. [1], Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. and G. Forster, Casuarina littoralis Salisb., Casuarina littorea Oken., Casuarina muricata Roxb., Casuarina sumatrana Jungh. [4]

D. Other1

³

mu ma huang, pu tong mu ma huang (China) [1] – casuarine a feuilles de prele, bois de fer, fialo, filao, pich pin, pin d'Australie (France) [1, 4] - Eisenholz, Keulenbaum

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(Germany) [4] - cemara laut, jemara laut, ai samara, aru,

1

eru, tjemara laut (Indonesia) [1, 4] - casuarina, jangli saru, jau, savukku (India) [1] - mokumao, ogasawa matsu (Japan) [1] - son th'ale, `sôn tha lé, pè:k namz, pêk nam², sôn th’ale (Laos) [1, 4] - kasa ghas (Sri Lanka) [1] - pino australiano, casuarina (Spain) [10] - tin yu, pink-tinyu, tin-yu (Myanmar) [1, 4] - ru, ru laut (Malaysia) [1] - yar (Papua New Guinea) [1] - agoho (Philippines) [1] - son thale, ku, son-thale (Thailand) [1, 4] - phi lao, c[aa]y phi lao, duong, filao, phi-lao (Vietnam) [1, 4]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

sav Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ snga:w [4], sngav [3] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Casuarinales Family: Casuarinaceae Gunus: Casuarina Species: Casuarina equisetifolia L. Subspecies: Casuarina equisetifolia equisetifolia, Casuarina equisetifolia incana (Benth.) L. Johnson

Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Casuarina equisetifolia is a medium-sized to tall evergreen, dioecious or monoecious tree

maturity. "The subsp. incana is typically a small tree and may be reduced to only a large shrub 6-10 m tall on poor sites" [1]. This species has a life span of 40-50 years [8] with a fast early growth. Trunk is straight, cylindrical, usually branchless for up to 10 m, with a DBH of 100-150 cm [4] (20-40 cm [7], 50 cm [1], 100 cm [10]) occasionally with buttresses. "The form in wild populations is very variable, from crooked low branching trees on exposed seashores to straight stemmed forest trees with a narrowly conical form in more sheltered situations and in plantations" [8]. Bark is light grey-brown, smooth on small trunks, becoming rough and thick, furrowed and flaking into oblong pieces on older trees. Encircling bands of lenticels are prominent on the young bark. The inner bark is reddish or deep dirty brown and astringent. It contains 6-18% [2] tannin. Crown is finely branched, initially of conical shape but tends to flatten with age. Twigs are drooping, needle-like, furrowed and entirely green or green only at their tips. They have a diameter of 1-2.5 mm [1] (0.5-1 mm [4]), are 23-38 cm long [1] and angular to rounded in cross-section, hairless or sometimes hairy. Although C. equisetifolia is an evergreen tree species, it sheds a large amount of twigs throughout the year. [Leaves]: The minute teeth-like reduced leaves are in whorls of 7-8 per node [1]. [Flowers]: Flowers are unisexual (monoecious). Inner- and outer flowerleaves (=petals and sepals, or perianth) are absent and have been replaced by 2 leaf like structures, the bracteoles. Male flowers occur on simple terminal, elongated spikes 7-40 mm long [4] and are arranged in whorls with 7-11.5

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with a height of 6-35 (60) m [4] (8-16 m in Australia, -35 m in SE-Asia [1], 15-20 m [7], 10-30 [9]) at

2

whorls per cm [4] of spike with a single stamen (=male organ). Female flowers are cylindrical, coneor globe-shaped, 10-24 x 9-13 mm [1] and are borne on lateral woody branches. "In areas with a pronounced wet and dry season, flowering and fruiting are more regular once or twice per year. Where there is no distinct wet or dry season, flowering and fruiting tend to be irregular and may occur throughout the year" [1]. In India two flowering periods can be observed from February to April and from September to October with two corresponding fruiting periods in June and December. Casuarina is wind pollinated. [Fruits]: The fruits (='pseudo-cones') are woody and globe-shaped to cylindrical, 10-35 mm x 9-15 mm [1], with pointed bracteoles (=reduced leaves) more or less extending from the surface of the 'cone'. Fruitlets bear a single, yellow-brown to dull brown winged fruit 6-8 mm long [1]. In subspecies incana the young shoots and 'cones' are frequently covered in fine white hair. The seeds are solitary. [1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10]

I. Wood properties: C. equisetifolia yields a heavy and strong hardwood with an air-density (r15) of 0.9-1.0 g/cm³ [1, 4] (0.978 g/cm³ [7]). The sapwood is slightly heavier than the heartwood. Green logs have a moisture content of 40-60%. The heartwood is dull reddish brown, pale red, pale brown to dark red-brown or reddish grey and cannot be distinguished easily from the yellowish or pale yellow-brown to pinkish sapwood. Rays are prominent, resin filled and wavy on the radial faces of sawn timber and annual rings are distinctive. Grain is straight, slightly interlocked or wavy. Fiber are 895-1,230 µm long [1]. Texture fine to moderately fine and even. Shrinkage is moderate to very high, and in the latter case

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

the wood is difficult to season due to severe warping and cracking. The wood is difficult to use for fine

3

carpentry. Logs are also very difficult to saw in small circular saw mills and air-dried timber is difficult to machine because of its density and hardness. The heartwood is highly resistant to pressure treatment, but sapwood is amenable to such treatment. The wood is so hard that nail holes must be predrilled. "The wood is very susceptible to attack by the dry-wood termite Cryptotermes brevis and has only limited durability unless treated with preservatives" [1]. However another source mentions the heartwood being resistant to dry-wood termites [4]. It also impregnates relatively well and is suitable for applications involving exposure to water if properly treated. The highly regarded wood ignites readily even when green and produces little ash which can retain the heat for long periods. The energy value of wood is 24,000 kJ/kg [1] (5,000 kcal/kg [4]), whereas the value of charcoal exceeds 33,500kJ/kg [1] (7,000 kcal/kg [4]). [1, 4, 7, 8, 10]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 20°N to 32°S [1] (22°N to 22°S [10]). Casuarina equisetifolia is cultivated around the tropics and beyond, in coastal and semi-arid regions but also in mountainous zones. Subspecies equisetifolia is commonly confined to a narrow strip adjacent to sandy shores rarely extending inland to lower hills. It is found on sand dunes, in sands alongside estuaries behind foredunes and gentle slopes near the sea. It grows at the leading edge of dune vegetation which is subject to salt spray and inundation with sea water at extremely high tides. Subsp. incana has been recorded growing on rocky

headlands. C.equisetifolia may form pure stands on the coastal dunes growing over a ground cover of dune grasses and salt tolerant broadleaved herbs, or can be part of a richer association of trees and shrubs collectively termed the 'Indo-Pacific beach flora'. Tree associates in this vegetation include Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Eugenia sp., Heritiera littoralis, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pongamia glabra, Thespesia populnea and Pandanus sp. "In Australia it also grows in narrow belts adjacent to mangrove forests or scattered in open woodlands dominated by eucalypts" [1]. It may even occur in mangrove forests and coastal forests [6]. "Under extreme edaphic situations it forms natural pure stands or mixed stands with Casuarina cunninghamiana, which is native to Australia and New Caledonia" [10]. In Cambodia the species is spontaneous and grows on sandy coasts in small groups. "It has the potential to become a weed under certain conditions" [1]. [1, 6, 9, 10]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : In its natural habitat C. equisetifolia is commonly confined to a narrow strip of sandy coasts, rarely extending inland to lower hills near the coastline, Casuarina grows between 0-100 m a.s.l. [1] (0-20 m [6]). In general it can be found at 0-1,400 m a.s.l. [4, 10] (0-1,500 m [1]), in Tanzania up to 1,800 m [10] and in the Andes even up to 2,000 m [10]. The climate in its natural range is semi-arid to subhumid. In most regions there is a distinct dry period of 4-6 months, although this seasonality decreases towards the equator in Southeast Asia and in the southern parts of its range in Australia. Subspecies equisetifolia occurs rather in hot humid to hot sub-humid climate, while subspecies incana grows mainly in the warm sub-humid zone. Generally areas with a mean annual rainfall of 350-5,000 mm [1] (200-3,500 mm [4], 700-2,000 mm [10]) with a distinct wet and dry season are suited. In case

temperature ranges between 10 and 35°C [4] (18-26°C [10]). Mean maximum temperature of the hottest month is in general 30-35°C [1], in India values of 37-47°C [1] have been observed. Mean minimum temperature of the coldest month is in general 10-20°C [1] and 7-17°C [1] in India. Subspecies equisetifolia is not frost resistant, while subsp. incana tolerates 1-3 frosts/year [1] within a few kilometers of the sea. Casuarina is a light demander, shade intolerant and sensitive to fire. Many areas where the species naturally occurs are susceptible to tropical cyclones or typhoons. Thus Casuarina shows a general tolerance to strong and even salt-laden winds. [1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Casuarina grows on well drained and rather coarse textured soils, especially sands more than 2 m [1] deep, often covering a layer of sandy loam for moisture retention. It may fail on poor sands where the subsoil moisture conditions are unsatisfactory. The species tolerates both calcareous and slightly alkaline soils, saline soils and inundated soils but is intolerant of prolonged waterlogging. It grows well

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

of groundwater access annual precipitations as low as 300 mm are tolerated. The mean annual

4

in soils with a pH from 5.0 to 9.5 [1]. A high nutrient availability is not required. "It has also been successfully grown in tin-mine spoils and sterile pumice" [1]. [1, 4, 5, 7, 10]

N. Utilization and importance : [General]: Casuarina is a nitrogen-fixing, multipurpose tree-species of considerable social, economic and environmental importance in many tropical areas of the world, providing a wide range of products and services for industrial and local end-users [1]. [Wood]: "The wood is highly regarded as a fuel and produces high quality charcoal. The energy value of the wood is 24,000 kJ/kg (5,000 kcal/kg [4]) and that of the charcoal exceeds 33,500 kJ/kg (7,000 kcal/kg [4])" [1].

It has been used for both domestic and industrial fuel such as for railroad

locomotives. Other wood uses include masts for fishing boats, rafters, boat oars, piles, house posts, electric poles, furniture, tool handles, wagon wheels and mine props. "In India, the wood is a source of wood fiber for production of paper pulp using neutral sulfate and semi-chemical processes, and as a raw material for rayon fibers. The fiber is long, 895-1,230 µm" [1] . [1, 4, 7] [Non-wood]: Casuarina is also important as a dye and tannin-producing plant. The bark, contains 618% [2] of tannin which has a red pigment and is used for tanning but also for toughening fishing nets. "It penetrates the hide quickly and furnishes swollen, pliant, soft leather of pale reddish-brown color" [4]. "In China, and elsewhere in Asia, leaf litter is often removed from plantations and used as fuel" [1]. Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Many parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine: Root extracts are used for medical treatment

5

of dysentery, diarrhea and stomach-ache. In West Malaysia a decoction of the twigs is used for treating swelling and the powdered bark is used for treating acne. [1, 2, 4, 6, 10] [Others]: C. equisetifolia is used to control erosion along coastlines, estuaries, riverbanks and waterways and also for revegetation. It is widely planted on sandy soils in coastal China and Vietnam, providing protection against winds and shifting dunes and a stable base for agriculture. "In Sarawak, Indonesia the species is protected because of its importance in controlling coastal erosion" [4]. In South China, approximately 1 million ha have been established with Casuarina trees in shelterbelts along the coastal dunes. The abundance of highly branched twigs absorbs wind energy amazingly well and the species' general tolerance to strong winds, cyclones and typhoons has encouraged its use in protective planting. In areas with hot and dry winds the tree protects crops and animal herds. Casuarina even grows vigorously on barren and polluted sites like former bauxite mines (e.g. Northern Queensland, Australia) and colonizes sterile tin tailings. The tree is also a nitrogen fixing species: Root nodules containing the actinorhizal symbiont Frankia enable C. equisetifolia to fix atmospheric nitrogen. These root nodules can be prolific. Casuarina is commonly grown as an ornamental along streets, parks and seashores. It is also remarkably suited for boundary planting

because it does not intercept much of the incoming solar radiation and yields substantial quantities of green leaf manure. [1, 4, 7, 9 ]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: C.equisetifolia may form pure stands on the coastal dunes growing over a ground cover of dune grasses and salt tolerant broadleaved herbs, or can be part of a richer association of trees and shrubs collectively termed the 'Indo-Pacific beach flora'. Tree associates in this vegetation include Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Eugenia sp., Heritiera littoralis, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pongamia glabra, Thespesia populnea and Pandanus sp. Casuarina is highly recommended for plantations in areas close to the sea on loose sand. [Establishment]: Plantations are established using containerized seedlings, rooted cuttings or bareroot seedlings. Plants are typically suitable for outplanting after 3-4 months when they are 25-30 cm [1] (50 cm [10]) tall. "In Vietnam, however, seedlings 1-1.2 m tall with a strong root ball are preferred when planting on moving sands" [1]. Seedlings should be planted in well-drained light soils, not clay soils to decrease the risk of diseases and pests. They are planted 40 cm [1] deep in order to withstand strong winds. In areas with very low overall precipitation, only planting of container plants is advisable and it may be necessary to water the young plants until their roots reach the groundwater. A planting density of 2,500 stems/ha [1] is commonly used, but some farmers in India plant up to 8,0002 to 3 x 3 m [10]. When planting to provide protection against soil erosion, closer spacings can be used. Smaller seedlings are quickly suppressed by more vigorous seedlings. Young trees compete poorly with weeds, therefore weeding is important during the first two years. They are also susceptible to drought until their roots reach the groundwater table, which may take up to 2-3 years after planting. The shoots grow actively throughout the year except during cool and dry months. [Management]: C. equisetifolia has a life span of 40-50 years [1] and displays rapid early growth rates (about 2-3 m/year [1] in height) and good form in cultivation. The rotation period ranges from 4-5 years [4] (8-15 years [10]) for fuelwood and 10-15 years [4] for poles. C. equisetifolia is a rather poor self-pruner. Pruning is necessary up to 2 m [4] in dense plantations to make them accessible for maintenance. "In China, India and Vietnam, all branches within reach are regularly pruned by farmers who use them for fuel" [1]. Early thinnings are essential for timber production as trees have a high demand for light. If close thinnings are used approx 50% of the trees are removed by thinnings at age 5 or 6 [10]. The ability to coppice is limited and is generally restricted to trees up to 4 years old. However, trees respond reasonably well to hedging. Under favorable sites, it can attain a height of 4-5 m/year [1] (2 m/year [4], >3 m/year [8]) with good tree forms during the first 2 years. At 10 years a height of 10 m [8] and a diameter of 20 cm [8] may be reached. On good sites an mean annual volume increment of 6-18 m³/ha [10] (15 m³/ha at 10 years [1]) can be expected. However, mean annual increments usually fall in the range of 4-5 m³/ha/year [4]. "In central Vietnam, a mean annual

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

10,000 stems/ha [8] for production of fuelwood and small poles. The commonly used spacings are 2 x

6

increment of 8-12 m³/ha [1] can be obtained from plantations 1.5 x 1 m spacing on 4-7 year rotations. In Puerto Rico, mean annual increments in height and diameter at breast height recorded for plantations less than 5 years old are 1.1-4.5 m [1] and 1.3-5.4 cm [1], respectively. Growth rates reported elsewhere in China, Egypt, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam are within or higher than these ranges" [1]. "In South China, where an estimated 1 million hectares in shelterbelts along the coastal dunes have been established since 1954, heights of 7-8 m and diameters of 5-7 cm are achieved in about 4 years. In India, plantations using 1 x 1 m or 2 x 2 m spacing on 6-15 year rotations yield 50-200 t/ha [4]. Height growth culminates when the trees are 7 years old and volume increments at about 25 years [10]. The dry weight per tree ranges from 15 to 25 kg [1] at 3 years of age, depending on site quality. In Asia, leaf litter from plantations is often removed as fuel and this draws heavily upon soil phosphorus and potassium reserves. This can result in reduced yield in the subsequent rotation. [Agroforestry]: Casuarina is a species suitable for agroforestry systems especially for arid and semiarid areas. It fixes approx 60 kg N/ha/year [10] enhancing soil fertility. Although litter decomposes very slowly, thus impending the development of the undergrowth this effect is broadly used in Asia for afforestation of Imperata savannas. "Experiments at Prabhunagar, India, showed citrus trees grew larger under C. equisetifolia than in pure stands" [4]. In Asia C. equisetifolia also is occasionally mixed with Leucaena leucocephala or on very poor sites with Vitex spp. [1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10]

Q. Propagation : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Propagation is done by using seeds and cuttings.

7

[Seed collection and storage]: The female 'cones' mature about 18-20 weeks [1] after anthesis and release small winged seeds within 3 days when dried under full sun. Ripe 'cones' are plucked from the branches before they dehisce, dried in the sun and thrashed to separate the winged seeds. 1 kg of 'cones' (about 250 'cones') yields 20-60 g of seed [1]. There are about 650-760 seeds/g [1] (260 seeds/g [4], 750-1,000 seeds/g [5], 300-800 seeds/g [10]) but on average only 270 seeds or 38% [1] (50% [4]) are viable. The fruits on one tree do not all mature at the same time often causing a problem for seed collection. The dried seeds retain their viability for 20 months [5]. Seed storage is classified as orthodox and airtight storage in cool room is recommended to maintain satisfactory viability for extended periods. Seeds should rather be stored for 5 years in a cool room (3-5°C) [1] (3°C with 5-9% mc [4]) or freezer (-16°C) [1] than at room temperature (25°C) [1]. Seed does not require pretreatment. If stored under these cool and dry conditions the viability of the seeds can be preserved for 2 years [10] or more. [Nursery technique - Seedlings]: The seed is usually broadcast on seed beds filled with finely sifted soil, a mixture of sand and peat moss. Seeds can be sown without pretreatment but should be protected from ants. In India, primary beds are covered with hay and overhead shade [5]. Germination is epigeal and starts after 4-10 days [10] (14-21 days [1], 7-20 days [5]). Germination rate: 40-60% [5], 70-80% [10]. The young seedlings are watered at regular intervals and kept lightly shaded. After 4-6 weeks they are approximately 10 cm tall [10] (3-10 cm [4]) and are then transplanted either to

polybags, containers or nursery beds, at densities of 100-400 seedlings/m² to obtain bare-rooted planting stock. Appropriate watering, correct spacing of plants and adequate light should prevent damping-off in the nursery. Excessive watering should be avoided and 50% shade is suitable until seedlings are ready for out-planting. Inoculation of the seedlings with pure strains of the mycorrhizal fungus Frankia is recommended when the species is introduced to a new area. After 5-8 months the plants have reached a height of about 50 cm [10] and can be field planted on sites that have been thoroughly prepared beforehand. [Nursery technique - Cuttings]: Although propagation is mainly by seed, cuttings are increasingly used. It is easily propagated by rooting of stem cuttings, lateral or side shoots, terminal twigs, heel cuttings or basal sprouts. Shoots should be 1 year old and can be cut or girdled. Suitable cutting material is 2 mm in diameter [1] and 10-15 cm in length [1], and rooting is enhanced through use of the hormones IBA (Indolebutyric acid) or IAA (Indoleacetic acid). "In Southern China, cuttings are taken from branchlets 1 mm in diameter [4], 5 cm length [4] and soaked in a solution of Napthalyacetic acid (NAA) before being placed in polythene tubes" [4]. Air layering on branches 1-2 cm in diameter [1] yields better results than cuttings when propagating clonal material from old trees. Micropropagation by tissue culture is feasible, but mass production of planting stock by this method is not practiced. [1, 4, 5, 7, 10]

R. Hazards and protection : C. equisetifolia is only rarely attacked by diseases and pests, unless if grown under unfavorable

[Pests]: Over 50 species of insects are known to feed on the species, but serious pest problems have not occurred. A borer beetle, Sinoxylon anale, girdles small stems (about 1 cm in diameter), causing them to break at the point of attack. Insect pests include casuarina tussock moth, Lymantria xylina, white-spotted long-horn beetle, Anoplophora macularia, and cotton locust, Chondracis rosea. Ants attack fresh seeds. The wood borers Zeuzera spp. and Hypsiptla robusta are known to cause severe damage to the wood. Another less important pest is Apate monachus. [Diseases]: The most serious disease is blister bark disease which has been observed in Thailand and Vietnam. Infected trees die rapidly after exhibiting symptoms of foliar wilt and cracking of the bark where blisters develop enclosing a black powdery mass of spores. Blister bark disease is associated with the fungus Trichosporum vesiculosum. Pruning may allow a infection of fungal pathogens, especially Trichosporium vesiculosum and Formes lucidus. "In India losses of over 75% have been registered in some stands" [10]. Other fungus diseases include Botryosphaeria ribis, Corticium salmonicolor,

Phellinus noxius and Phomopsis

casuarinae.

"Bacterial

wilt

(Pseudomonas

solanacearum), causes yellowing foliage and wilting and death has been reported in China and India" [4]. Other serious recorded diseases include stem cankers and dieback caused by Phomopsis casuarinae, and Botryosphaeria ribis and pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor). "Brown rot caused by Phellinus noxius is causing tree decline in Taiwan" [1]. As in other actinorhizal plants, endomycorrhizal (VAM) infection occurs easily. Another bacterial disease is caused by Ralstonia

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

conditions.

8

solanacearum. For disease control, lopping and pruning of branches should be stopped to prevent the primary establishment of a disease. Diseased trees should be removed as early as possible and spread of the disease checked by making trenches around groups of diseased trees to avoid root contact [Others]: Seedlings are susceptible to browsing by rodents and crabs. C. equisetifolia is not fire resistant particularly when young making a protection necessary. [1, 4, 10]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : In Cambodia the species is spontaneous, met on sandy coasts in small groups. [9] Kp.Saom, Kep, Kampot, Koh Kong, Phnom Penh [11]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Tonga, Vanuatu, Vietnam

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[4, 6, 9]

9

[Introduced]: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, China, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, India, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Martinique, Mauritania, Montserrat, Myanmar, Netherlands Antilles, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United States of America, Virgin Islands (US), Zanzibar [4, 6, 9]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [[Terminology]: "One of the common names of Casuarina species, ‘she-oak’, widely used in Australia, refers to the attractive wood pattern of large lines or rays similar to oak but weaker. The specific name is derived from the Latin ‘equinus’, pertaining to horses, and ‘folium’, a leaf, in reference to the fine, drooping twigs, which are reminiscent of coarse horse hair" [4]. "Casuarina is from the Malay word ‘kasuari’, from the supposed resemblance of the twigs to the plumage of the cassowary bird" [1].

Breeding]: "In cultivation, C. equisetifolia hybridizes with C. glauca and C. junghuhniana." [4]

W. Further readings5 : CATIE, 1991. Casuarina equisetifolia, multiple use tree in Central America [Casuarina equisetifolia L. ex J.R. Forst & G. Forst., árbol de uso múltiple en America Central]. Rep. No. 173, Tech. Series. Turrialba, Costa Rica: Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigacíon y Enseñanza (CATIE). [1] Ha Chu Chu, Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Planting and uses of Casuarina equisetifolia in Vietnam. In: Pinyopusarerk K, Turnbull JW, Midgley SJ, eds. Recent Casuarina Research and Development. Proceedings of the 3rd International Casuarina Workshop. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, 223-225. [1] Dahl N, 1996. Cauarina equisetifolia: its use and future in mine rehabilitation in Northern Australia. In: Pinyopusarerk K, Turnbull JW, Midgley SJ, eds. Proceedings of the 3rd International Casuarina Workshop. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, 201_203. [1] Kondas S, 1983. Casuarina equisetifolia - a multipurpose tree cash crop in India. In: Midgley SJ, Turnbull JW, Johnston RD, eds. Casuarina Ecology, Management and Utilization. Proceedings of the 1st International Casuarina Workshop. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 66_76.

National Research Council, 1984. Casuarinas: nitrogen-fixing trees for adverse sites. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. [1] Phi Quang Dien, 1996. Preliminary results of Casuarina equisetifolia provenance trials in Vietnam. In: Pinyopusarerk K, Turnbull JW, Midgley SJ, eds. Recent Casuarina Research and Development. Proceedings of the 3rd International Casuarina Workshop. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, 113-118. [1] Turnbull JW, 1983. The use of Casuarina equisetifolia for protection forests in China. In: Midgley SJ, Turnbull JW, Johnston RD, eds. Casuarina Ecology, Management and Utilization. Proceedings of the 1st International Casuarina Workshop. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 55-57. [1] Hocking D. 1993. Trees for Drylands. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. [4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

10

MacDicken GK. 1994. Selection and management of nitrogen fixing trees. Winrock International, and Bangkok: FAO. [4]

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[2] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[3] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished DFSC, 2000, Seed Leaflet No.26

[4] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=477. (Internet source)

[5] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture (Internet source).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgibin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=1916179720&spd=5425&sub=0&tx=PL (Internet source).

11

[7] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[8] PROSEA, 1997: Plant Resources of South East Asia 11 - Auxiliary plants.

[9] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[10] Lamprecht, H., 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ.

[11] Petri, M (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³ ³

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.[2] silk cotton tree, true kapok, white silk cotton tree, [6] kapok tree,[26]

C. Synonym

³

C. thoningii A.Chev., C. guineensis (Thonn.) A.Chev., C. casearia L Medicus, Eriodendron anfractuosum DEC., Bombax pentandrum, B. guineensis Schum. & Thonn., B. orientale Sprengel [4,6,20], Eriodendendron caribaeum G.Don, E.guineense G.Don [20]

D. Other1

³

koo (Cambodia); kapok, randu, kapu (Indonesia); nguiz baanz (Laos); kabuk-abu pohon kapok (Malaysia); nun (Thailand); gòn, gau (Vietnam) [4,6], arbre à boure, fromagier [26].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôor [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Bombacaceae Gunus: Ceiba Species: Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Source :[4 ; 11 ; 27]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A semi-deciduous, large-sized tree up to 20-30 m high and 80-120 cm in diameter; trunk cylindrical. Twigs greenish, spiny; inner bark with water-storing parenchyma. Buttresses widely spreading, often plank-formed [2]. Tree 4-15 m tall [4]. Deciduous tree up to 25 m [5]. A fast growing deciduous tree with straight bole, sometimes buttressed, reaching 30 m in height (var. pentandra). Bole and branches more or less covered with conical spines. Branches extending horizontally, whorled in groups of 3, giving a pagoda-shaped thin crown [6]. Impressively large tree up to 60 m tall with smooth stem. In the juvenile phase the crown is formed by horizontally arranged branches, when old occasionally developing strong buttresses several meters high [13]. [Bark]: Bark glabrous, green, with some ridges around the trunk, smooth or covered with large conical spines.[2] [Leaves]: Digitately compound, with 5-7 lanceolate leaflets; petiole 7-14 cm long [2]. Leaflets 6-12 x 1.5-3.0 cm, main stalks 8-20 cm [5]. Leaves alternate, with 8-25 cm long petioles, palmately compound with 5-11 smooth, oblong-lanceolate leaflets, 5-16 cm long [6]. Leaves with 2-9 leaflets, 10-18 cm long, imparipinnate, often coloured red when sprouting on the tip of long shoots [13]. [Flowers]: White or pink, solitary or in short cymes at leaf axil. Calyx cupulate, with 5 unequal lobes. Sepals 5, oblong-oval, 2.5 cm long, white pubescent outside. Stamens few, adnate at the base, upper part divided into 5 bundles, anther reniform. Ovary superior, 5-locular, numerous ovules in each locule, stigma pentafid [2]. Flower 2.0-3.5 cm, creamy-white, petals fused together at base, 5-6 stamens, style with a single tip [5]. The numerous flowers are dirty-white, about 3 cm long, with a foetid milky smell, appearing in groups at the beginning of the dry season when trees are leafless

groups. Sepals up to 3.5 cm long, wooly pubescent. Bats pollinating the flowers [13]. The flowering is described with the following details: Flowers open after dark and emit a strong odour, emitting nectar at the base of the large, bisexual flowers. As soon as the flowers are open they are visited by bats feeding on pollen and nectar. When the morning dawns bees profit from the nectar continuing the pollination of the flowering tree [26]. [Fruit]: A woody capsule oblong-oval, pendulous, 15 cm long and 3-4 cm wide, dehiscing into 5 segments when mature. Inside of pericarp densely hairy, seeds numerous, round, glossy [2]. Fruit 810 cm, straight, with 5 grooves [5]. Fruits are ellipsoidal capsules, 7.5-30.0 cm long becoming brown when ripe, opening with 5 valves. Seeds embedded in copious, white, pale yellow or grey floss [6]. Fruit in the form of leathery, elliptic, 10-30 cm long capsules with numerous small black seeds. The uni-celled, 2-4 cm long seed hairs cannot be spun into a thread because of a thin wall and a large lumen. They do not arise from the seed shell but are formed by the inner fruit wall epidermis. Flowering in March-April, fruiting in August-September[2]. The seed capsules split along 5 lines, each capsule releasing between 120-170 round, black seeds packaged in a mass of grey wooly hair or fibres. The seeds with hair attached are dispersed by the wind and encounter best starting conditions on abandoned cultivated land [26].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6,9]. After leaf fall flowers form at the end of sprouts , they are dirty-white with numerous stamens in

2

I. Wood properties: Wood white, soft and light [2]; C. pentandra wood is variable in colour, from white to light brown, but sap-staining fungi may darken it. The wood is very light, with specific gravity of 250 kg/m³. The wood machines easily but not satisfactorily. Machining characteristics include excellent planing and sanding and resistance to splitting when screwed. Shapes and bores poorly but mortises well. Logs and lumber are very susceptible to insect and fungal attack, but preservative treatment is easy; either pressure-vacuum systems or open-tank methods give good absorption and penetration. The wood is easy to peel for veneer. Reported uses of wood include plywood, packaging, lumber core stock, light construction, pulp and paper products, canoes and rafts, farm implements, furniture and matches [20].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : It is believed that this tree originated in Central America, but this happened so long tme ago that the way of distribution cannot be accurately reconstructed. Because of its wide range of uses it has been cultivated for a long time and can now be found pantropically between 16º N and 16º S [20]. From evergreen forests in Brazil and northern South America and dry savannas in Africa [11], it was introduced into Asia at least 1500 years ago [5]. Distributed in Burma, China, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia; in East, West and Central Africa, and in the tropical zones of the Americas [2,6,26]. The tree can be found in a variety of forest types, moist evergreen, deciduous, dry forest and gallery forest. However, as a pioneer species it is most frequently found in secondary forests of various development stages [26].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

A tree of tropical climate, light-demanding, growing under a variety of conditions, but thriving better

3

below 500 m elevation, and with at least 1000 mm/m² of annual precipitation, particularly during the vegetation period [6]. Biophysical limits are approximately defined as follows: 0-900 m elevation asl; between 750-3000 mm/ m² mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature between 1838ºC [26].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers wet, deep, but well-drained soils[2], thrives specifically on deep, permeable volcanic soils, as found in Java, Indonesia. [26].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Usable for manufacture of ordinary implements, boats and floats [2]. Also for the preparation of match sticks. Large trees are peeled for rotary veneer which is used as corestock (middle layer) in plywood production

[Non-Wood): Young flowers and fruit consumed as vegetable; resin from the trunk is sold for preparing a drink, adding sugar and water. From young leaves, crushed with ice, a poultice is prepared and applied to the forehead against headache; from the bark a remedy for diarrhoea can be prepared [4]. The seed capsules yield kapok, the floss in the fruit, usable for thermal and accoustic insulation [6]. Kapok fibres consist to 65% of cellulose and hemi-cellulose, they are smooth, water-repellent and of high elasticity. Under water they exhibit a flotation force of 30 times their own weight. That is why kapok makes such good insulation and stuffing material and why it had been used for life-belts over a hundred years until the arrival of synthetic materials. Fibre plantations in Java, Indonesia, yield 130150 kg of fibres after3 years and may produce between 2000-4000kg/ha later. In rural areas kapok is still widely used still used for stuffing seat cushions and matresses [13]. The natural fibre is superior in comfort to synthetic foam matresses and cushions. Practically the entire supply of kapok is obtained from Java [16]. Edible oil, also used in soap manufacture, can be extracted from seeds [2,13]. An other report indicates that C. pentandra seed contains 20-25% non-drying oil, similar to cottonseed oil, which is used as a lubricant, in soap manufacturing and in cooking [20]. The pressed seed cake contains around 26% protein and is fed to domestic animals. There are various medicinal applications, e.g., compressed fresh leaves are used against dizziness; decoction of the boiled roots is used to treat oedema; gum is eaten to relieve stomach upset; tender shoot decoction is a contraceptive and leaf infusion is taken orally against cough and hoarse throat. However, in some people the floss can provoke an allergy irritating eyes and nose [26]. There is also this application in veterinary medicine: In Tamilnadu, India, the leaves are pounded together with

reproductive problems. The dose is approx. 500 ml three times a day for three consecutive days [26]. C. pentandra can be used as a roadside tree or shade tree in pepper plantations [2,13];

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : In agroforestry landuse Ceiba pentendra is planted in a 7.3x7,3 m grid to leave enough space for intercropping, which may continue over 5 years.

Q. Propagation : Easily propagated from seeds, fruiting starts after 3-4 years; regeneration after coppicing is strong [2]. Fruit is collected by hooked knives, seeds dried in the sun and separated from the floss by shaking the dehiscent fruits in a bag. Viability is limited and related to the seed oil which degrades rapidly. It is estimated that between 10,000 and 45,000 seeds, depending on provenance, are weighing 1 kg. Generally seed propagated, C. pentandra can also be easily raised by cuttings. Natural reproduction from seed is occasionally rare, as the fruit is collected for the valuable kapok floss. There is therefore

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

fermented boiled rice water and the extract is administered to cows orally as a remedy for

4

little scope of reproduction from self-sown seeds [20], except where seeds are blown to abandoned agricultural land [26]..

R. Hazards and protection : Insect defoliators include Ephyriades arcas, Eulepidotis modestula, Oiketicus kirbiyi and Pericalia ricini. The tree is also a host to parasitic plants such as Dendropthoe falcata and Loranthus spp. Pathogenic fungi that attack the tree include Armillaria, Calonectria, Camillea, Cercospora [20].

S. Conservation :

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : In Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia; cultivated in Java; in West-Africa, in tropical America. [2,6]

V. Miscellaneous4 : Bombacaceae is a small family of tropical trees comprising Baobab, balsa, durian and kapok trees. Most species are found in South America, above all in Brazil, a few occur in Southeast Asia, some unusual ones in Africa and Madagascar. They live mostly in dense rain forests in South America and in open savanna and weedy habitats in Africa. Many species are deciduous and their entire, palmate

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

or digitate leaves and stipules, are shed at the end of the rainy season. During this leafless period the

5

flowers open. They are massive for most genera of the family and even when they are small they are showy with white or brightly coloured flowers. They are always bisexual and frequently emerge from the branches and trunks aand even near the base of the plant in some tropical forest genera like Durio [11]. The fibre or floss from the inner wall of the fruit is unique in that it combines springiness and resilience and is resistant to vermin, to make it ideal for stuffing pillows, mattresses and cushions. It is light, water repellent and buoyant, making it ideal for life jackets, lifeboats and other naval safety apparatus. It is an excellent material for insulating iceboxes, refrigerators, cold-storage plants, offices, theatres and airplanes. It is a good sound absorber and is widely used for acoustic insulation; it is indispensable in localhospitals, since mattresses can be dry sterilized without losing original quality.

W. Further readings5 : White F, 1983. The vegetation of Africa. Natural Resources Research, UNESCO, 20:356 pp.; [Also available in French]; 50 pp. ref. Zotz G, Winter K, 1994. Photosynthesis of a tropical canopy tree, Ceiba pentandra, in a lowland forest in Panama. Tree Physiology, 14(11):1291-1301; 30 ref. Basilevskaia, 1969. Plantes médicinales de la Guinée. Conakry, Guinea.

Berni CA, Bolza E, Christensen FJ, 1979. South American timbers - the characteristics, properties and uses of 190 species. South American timbers - the characteristics, properties and uses of 190 species., x + 229 pp.; 154 ref. Dileep M, Sudhakara K, Santhoshkumar AV, Nazeema KK, Ashokan PK, 1994. Effect of seed size, rooting medium and fertilizers on the growth of seedlings of Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. Indian Journal of Forestry, 17(4):293-300; 8 ref. Lamprecht H, 1989. Silviculture in the tropics; tropical forest ecosystems and their tree species, possibilities and methods for their long-term utilization. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), GmbH, Eschborn, Germany. Mashingo MSH, Mtenga LA, Lekule FP, 1994. Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) seed cake in diets of fattening pigs. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa, 42(4):311-315; 13 ref.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen, N.C. et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997 788 pp.

3)

Lamprecht, H. 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. Tropical Forest Ecosystems and their Tree

Species - Possibilities and Methods for their long-term Utilization. Paul Parey Publ. Hamburg and GTZ (English Edition) Eschborn 296 pp. 4)

Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,

5)

Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest

Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp. 6)

Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,

Bangkok, 234 pp. 11)

Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York;

336 pp. 12)

CABI Forestry Compendium 2003

17)

Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp. 19)

Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef

Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp. 20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

915 pp.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Chrysophyllum cainito L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Chrysophyllum cainito L.] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Chrysophyllum cainito L. [4]

B. English name (s)

³

star apple, golden leaf tree, cainito [6, 32]

C. Synonym

³

Chrysophyllum acuminatum Lam., C. brachycalix Urb., C. claraense Urb., C. oliviforme subsp. oliviforme, Achras caimito Ruiz & Pavon., Cynodendron oliviforme (L.), Baehni., Guersentia oliveforme Raf.,Cainito pomiferum Tuss., C. bonplandii Klotzsch. ex Miq., C. monopyrenum Spreng., C. sericeum Salisb. [32]

D. Other1

³

caimitier, pomme de lait (French); caimito, guayabillo (Spanish); sawo ijo, sawo hejo, sawo kadu (Indonesia); sawo duren, pepulut (Malaysia); hnin-thagya (Burma); nam nom (Laos); caimito (Philippines); chicle durian (Singapore); sataa

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

appoen (Thailand); vú-sùe (Vietnam) [4,6,32].

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

TwkedaHeKa Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ oek dâh kôôt [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Ebenales Family: Sapotaceae Gunus: Chrysophyllum

Species: Chrysophyllum cainito L. [4,27,32]

Source :[ -]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A shrub, 4-8 m tall [4]. An evergreen tree up to 15 (35) m tall and 60 cm in diameter with white gummy latex. Branchlets numerous, with many brown hairs. [6,26] An evergreen, decorative tree up to 15 m high [13]. Bole usually straight, cylindrical, often fluted or spurred at the base, buttresses small or absent [26]. [Bark]: Surface rough, irregularly fissured, brown; inner bark fibrous, orange-white mottled to yellowwhite, exuding white latex. Young twigs reddish-brown and hairy [26]. [Leaves]: Alternate, oblong to obovate, 5-16 cm x 3-6 cm, leathery, rust-red below with almost parallel secondary nerves. Leaf margins thickened [6]. Leaves alternate, distichous or spirally arranged, simple, oval or oblong, 7.6-12.7 cm long, 3.8-5.8 cm wide, deep green, hairless and glossy above, golden-brown with a sheen like satin beneath; exstipulate; apex mostly abruptly short pointed, short pointed at base, with untoothed edges and slightly thickened; tertiary veins often parallel to the secondaries and descending from the margin. Petiole 1.3-1.6 cm long, reddish-brown, hairy [26]. [Flowers]: Flowers arising from leaf corners on current season´s shoots, in groups of 5-35 small yellow to purplish-white, flowers with 5 sepals, 1-4 mm long [6]. Inflorescences axillary, ramiflorous or

purplish-white, axillary. Calyx a single whorl of 4-6; usually 5 imbricate or quincuncial sepals, sometimes accrescent in fruit, frequently ciliate. Corolla 5-lobed, globose, campanulate or cylindrical; tube shorter than, equalling or exceeding the lobes; lobes (min. 4) 5 (max. 8), simple. Stalk slender, hairy, reddish-brown, 64-95 mm long. Stamens 4-8, usually fixed in the corolla tube; ovary superior, (min 4) 5 (max. 12)-locular with 1 ovule per cell (axile placentation); style included; anthers extrorse in bud, hairy or glabrous. Staminodes rarely present, as small lanceolate or subulate structures in the corolla lobe sinuses, alternating with the stamens; disc absent [26]. [Fruit]: Fruit a berry, 5-10 cm in diameter, obovoid-globose, yellow-green or purplish brown with thin leathery skin and white or purple, soft juicy flesh [6]. Fruits globose, the size of an apple with soft flesh, the seed compartment resembles a 9-pointed star when perpendicularly cut. Flesh jelly-like, sweetish, of a pleasant taste, but without a typical aroma [13]. Fruit is commonly round, sometimes oblate, and 5-10 cm in diameter. Rind thick, leathery, smooth surfaced, somewhat glossy, dull purple in some varieties, light green in others; with a gummy latex; flesh white and jelly-like. On cutting the fruit transversely, it is found differentiated into 2 kinds of flesh; directly under the tenacious skin is a layerof soft , somewhat granular flesh, concolourous with the skin, and not very juicy; enclosed by this are 8 translucent, whitish segments in which the seeds are embedded. Normally there is 1 seed in each segment, but frequently several are aborted, leaving 3-5 in the fruit [26]. Seeds ovate to elliptic

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

cauliflorous. Flowers unisexual or bisexual, fasciculate or, rarely,solitary; small and inconspicuous,

2

in outline, laterally compressed, 2 cm long, hard, brown and glossy with an adaxial scar. When the fruit is halved transversely, the cut segments present a star-like appearance, giving the tree the common name of star-apple. Two races are common, one green-fruited and the other purple fruited; they are not known to differ in flavour or characteristics except colour. The generic name is based on the Greek words for gold and leaf and refer to the leaves of some species that are often covered with golden hairs underneath [26].

I. Wood properties: Wood hard and durable [13]; the tree is cultivated for its fruit, but if felling becomes necessary the wood is found to be of fine structure, firm and heavy, specific gravity between 650-900kg/m³, straight grained, pink to dark reddish or brown. Sapwood and heartwood reddish-brown to dark brown, strong, hard, but not durable, fairly straight-grained [26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Originates in tropical West Indies Islands and in Central America [6]; in Southeast Asia most common in the Philippines, but also found in Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore; nowadays cultivated everywhere in warm regions as ornamental and fruit tree [4,6,19].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Warm tropical climates, wet or dry but hot (4, 32), within a wide climatic range in tropical lowlands [6]. Occurs up to 400 m elevation a.s.l [26].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

not determined

3

M. soil and site conditions : Grows well in moist soil types;[6]; grows well on almost all soil types: fertile, well-drained and slightly acid soils are preferred. C.cainito grows well on both sandy soils and on deep clayey loams [26].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Wood suitable for construction and as firewood [6,17]. Suitable for construction, carpentry, furniture. It dries moderately slow, with slight splits. Moderately difficult to work, but with extraordinary durability. Suitable for indoor construction, mouldings, light tool handles, joinery, furniture, cabinet making. Yields good veneer, but wood of this species will remain rare [26]. Suitable for marine construction, railway cross ties, factory floors and agricultural implements [32]. [Non-Wood]: Fruit mostly eaten fresh, used in ice cream or processed to jam [6,13,32]. Unripe fruit contains a sticky, adstringent latex, but a sweet and pleasantly flavoured pulp surrounds the ripe fruit. Basically the wood fibre is suitable for quality paper-making but raw material is scarce [26]. The bark yields tannin.

Bark, latex and and seeds are used in traditional medicine [6], seeds are diuretic, leaves are adstringent and used as compress on wounds. The fruit is used against bleeding and cooked against fever [32]. Undersides of leaves are grated and applied as a poultice on a wound. A leaf decoction is taken orally for hypoglycaemia. Fruit is used in treating haemorrhage or is cooked and used for fever. C. cainito is also planted as an ornamental tree because of the bright blue-green colour on the upper side of leaves and the copper-tone on the underside of the foliage [6,9,26]. Branches are suitable as an orchid-growing medium [6]. In the Atlantic region of Costa Rica, Central America, C. cainito together with Terminalia amazonia, Averrhoa carambola, Persea americana Diospyros discolor is planted on abandoned pastures in a rehabilitation project [32]. Annual growth is described as satisfactory for the fruit trees and for Terminalia amazonia better than in single species plantations or in secondary forests under shadow comparable to plots planted with maize (Zea mais) in Taungya systems [32].

O. Cambodian wood classification : Not included [18]

P. Silviculture and management : Chrysophyllum cainito is primarily a garden or orchard tree, hence there is little information on plantation establishment and management. Spacing is established from the beginning, based on a 10x10 m or 12x12 m grid because debranching [pruning) is not required. Weekly watering is required during the first 6 months, later only during the flowering season. In the West Indies trees are not

yield heavy crops of fruit, others bear little. Young trees are sensitive to water stress in their 1st year, and growth during that time is slow. Once the tree is established, growth rate and development become more rapid. Deep mulching with straw or lawn clippings, application of fertilizer and frequent dry-season watering all seem necessary for success with this species. C. cainito commences to bear fruit in its 3rd to 5th year and usually reaches its full production in its 6th to 7th year. Flowering occurs in the summer, and the fruits mature from late fall to summer. The fruit ripening season in the West Indies is April and May; it is reported that trees do not fruit in the Virgin Islands. Bats disperse the fruit [26]. Nutritional analysis gives the following results: sugar phosphorous calcium iron niacine

5% 16mg/100g 17 mg/100g 0.3-0.68 mg/100g 1mg/100g [32].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

fertilized but it is considered useful for increasing yield on poor and infertile soils [32]. Some trees

4

Q. Propagation : Seed storage reaction is intermediate, seeds should not be dried before storage. Viabilitycan be maintained for 6 months if stored in moist condition at 20 ºC. Germination reaches 81% on dessiccation to 4% m.c.( which is in equilibrium with 30% of relative humidity). Germination decreases to 23 % after 14 months of hermetic storage at 10 ºC.; seed weight amounts to 1100seeds /kg [26]. Propagation is usually by seed, which should be sown in light sandy loam. Germination rate is 70% in 14-40 days. Since there is much variation among seedlings, asexual means of propagation, such as grafting or layering, are preferable. This enables perpetuation of choice varieties that may originate. Budding will probably prove satisfactory. It is reported that cuttings can be grown if made from wellripened shoots and placed over strong moist heat. Natural regeneration is best at about 50% relative light intensity [26].

R. Hazards and protection : Insect pests include twig borers, carpenter moth, mealy bugs, scales and fruit flies. The oriental fruit fly Dacus dorsalis is a serious pest of ripening fruit and renders the fruit unfit for human consumption. Wrapping young fruit and collecting and destroying the infested fruit may reduce the damage. Birds, bats and wild cats can also cause considerable damage. The fungus Lasiodiplodia theobromae causes dry, sooty rot on fruits, which copper fungicides can control. In Queensland, Australia, Fusarium solani kills young trees and affects limbs of older trees. An unidentified fungal pathogen shrivels immature fruit in Florida [26].

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S. Conservation :

5

Not a threatened species [9].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Not determined, but found in many gardens in Cambodia [4].

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native to Central America and Caribbean Islands; introduced to India, Indochina, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, countries in East and West Africa, and South America. and other tropical countries [26,32].

V. Miscellaneous4 : Sapotaceae is a large family of tropical trees, occurring pantropically, mainly in lowland and lowermontane rain forests. [11]

W. Further readings5 : Anon. 1986. The useful plants of India. Publications & Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India. Dassanayake MD, Fosberg FR. 1983. Flora of Ceylon. Vol. 10. Amerind Publishing Co. New Delhi. Hearne DA. 1975. Trees for Darwin and northern Australia. Australian Government Publishing Service. Hong TD, Linington S, Ellis RH. 1996. Seed storage behaviour: a compendium. Handbooks for Genebanks: No. 4. IPGRI. Popenoe W. 1974. Manual of the tropical and subtropical fruits. The Macmillann Company. Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S. (eds.). 1998. PROSEA 5(3) Timber trees: lesser known species. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. Timyan J. 1996. Bwa Yo: important trees of Haiti. South-East Consortium for International Development. Washington D.C. Verheij EWM, Coronel RE (eds.). 1991. Plant Resources of South East Asia No 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.

X. References: Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

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4)

6

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

7

27)

Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

32)

http://www.herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/adc/downloads (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Chucrasia tabularis Ant. Juss]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Chucrasia tabularis Ant. Juss] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³ ³

Chucrasia tabularis Ant. Juss. [4] Burma almondwood, chickrassy, chittagong wood [16] bastard cedar, East Indian mahogany, Indian redwood, white cedar [12].

C. Synonym

³

Chickrassia tabularis (A.Juss.) Wight&Aen., Dysoxylum esquirolli H. Lev., Swietenia chickrassia Roxb. (8); Chukrasia velutina M. Roem., Chukrasia velutina (Wallich) Roemer, Chukrasia tabularis var. velutina (M. Roem.) W. Theob., (Botanists do not agree on whether C. velutina is a separate species or not) [12,16].

D. Other1

³

surian batu, trade name in Indonesia and Malaysia; repoh, cherana puteh, suntang puteh (Malaysia); yinma, tawyinma, kinthatputgyi, (Burma); vory yong, (Cambodia); nhom, nhom hin, nhom khao, (Laos); siat ka (Thailand-SE); yom-hin, (Thai-general), fakdap (Thai-Chanthaburi), lát hoa, Vietnam. [2,16,20]

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E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

1

vlø×eyag/ Ereyag Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ rê:-yôô:ng, voë(lli) yôông [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae Gunus: Chukrasia A.H.L. Juss. [16] Species: Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. Source :[2 ; 4 ; 8 ; 1 ; 11 ;12]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A tree up to 30 m in height and up to 100 cm in diameter. Trunk straight with large butresses, branches dense. [2] A tree, 8-20 m tall [4]. Evergreen tree up to 35 m high [5]. Deciduous trees up to 40 m high, diameter up to 120 cm, buttresses present [8]. Deciduous, monoecious, medium-sized, sometimes fairly large trees, up to 30(40) m tall; bole branchless for up to 18 (32) m, with a diameter of up to 110(175) cm, without buttresses [16]. [Bark]: Bark blackish, lenticellate, shortly reddish tomentose [2]. Dark brown, coarsely fissured, inner bark red [5]. Bark scaling into rectangular blocks. Inner bark reddish-brown or pinkish. Sapwood straw-colored, heartwood yellow to reddish-brown. Twigs grey.[8] Bark surface rusty brown or deep brown, with lenticels, inner bark reddish [16]. [Leaves]: Paripinnate compound. Petiole 30-40 cm long, cylindrical. Folioles 7-10 pairs, alternate sometimes nearly opposite, 10-12 cm long and 5-6 cm wide, ovate or lanceolate, apex mucronate. Petiolule 0.4-0.8 cm long. Lateral veins 10-15 pairs, a bundle of hairs at axil of veins, venules obvious beneath [2]. Leaf 30-85 cm, odd-pinnate (5)8-13 pairs of alternate or sub-opposite leaflets, 7-13x3.04.5 cm, narrowly ovate or oblong with tapering tips and oblique base, no teeth. Young leaves finely hairy, mature leaves completely smooth, 7-10 pairs of side veins. Leaflet stalks 0.3-0.5 cm, main stalk 7-11 cm [5]. Leaves bipinnate with incised or lobed leaflets when young, 30-80 cm long. Petioles 4-9 cm long, swollen at base, base oblique, margin entire (when mature), apex tapering, venation pinnate, secondary veins 10-15 pairs, domatia present, petioles 2-6 mm long [8].

lobed or incised when juvenile, glabrous or with simple hairs [16]. [Flowers]: Inflorescence a panicle, terminal, erect, then pendulous, tomentose. Bract oblong, caducous. Flowers hermaphrodite, yellowish, 1.5 cm long. Pedicel shorter than the flower. Sepals 0.25 cm long, shortly stellate-tomentose outside. Petals 5, 1.5-2.0 cm long, linear, slightly curved then spreading, margin enrolled, shortly tomentose outside, glabrous inside. Stamens 10, filament connate into cylindrical tube, glabrous, a little shorter than the petal, slightly swollen at the base. Anthers 10, glabrous, extrorse (turned to the outside). Ovary tomentose, stigma short, cylindrical [2]. Flower 2.53.0 cm, pale yellow often tinged dull red outside in spreading, branched clusters at or slightly above leaf axils, sometimes appearing terminal; individual stalks ± 0.3 cm, smooth. Calyx 1-2 mm, densely brown hairy, 4-5 narrow petals, ± 0.7 cm, curved backwards, minutely velvety. Stamen tube cylindrical, slightly narrower towards top with 10 anthers on flat or shallowly toothed rim. Ovary smooth, longer than style, surrounded by thin cup-shaped disc [5]. Inflorescences form panicles, axillary, sometimes terminal. Bracts narrowly triangular, often caducous. Flowers bisexual, calyx 5-lobed, densely brown hairy. Petals 5, free, slightly curved, spreading, hairy outside, glabrous inside. Stamen tube cylindrical, slightly narrower towards top, glabrous with 10 anthers attached to the margin. Ovary tomentose [8].

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Leaves paripinnate with alternate, entire, asymmetrical and acuminate leaflets, impari-pinnate and

2

Flowers unisexual, in axillary (sometimes appearingly terminal) thyrses, 4- or 5-merous, up to 16 mm long; calyx lobed, petals free, contorted, reflexed in open flowers, white; staminal tube cylindrical, narrowing towards the apex, entire or weakly lobed, with the anthers attached to the margin; disc small, ovary flask-shaped, 3-5 locular, each locule with many ovules, style slender [16]. [Fruit]: Elliptic, slightly mucronate at tip, 4.0-4.5 cm long and 2.5-3.5 cm wide, many seeds piled up in each fruit-locule. Seed 1.0-1.2 cm long and 0.4 cm wide, endosperm absent [2]. Fruit up to 4 cm, yellow-grey, slightly hairy when young, wrinkled when ripe, splitting into 3 sections, densely packed with winged seeds [5]. Fruit a capsule, ovoid, woody, dark brown, 2.0-4.5 by 2.0-3.5 cm, opening by 3-5 valves from apex. Seeds many, 1.0-1.3 cm long, winged [8]. Fruit an erect, woody, ovoid or ellipsoid capsule, opening by 3-5 valves from the apex; valves separating into a woody outer and inner layer, apex of those of the inner layer deeply bifid; locules appearing as one locule due to the breaking down of the septae; columella with sharp ridges. Seeds 60-100 per locule, flat, with terminal wings, arranged in layers, alternately "head-to-toe"; embryo with thin cotyledons. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy; first 2 leaves opposite, subsequent ones arranged spirally; terminal leaflet present in seedling leaves but abortive in mature plants [16]. Flowering in July, fruiting in December or following January. Natural regeneration is satisfactory, flowering in June-July, fruiting in November to following January. C. tabularis flowers and fruits

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annually, seeds are ripe in in January-March. The winged fruits are disseminated by the wind [2,8,16].

3

I. Wood properties: Chukrasia (surian batu) is a moderately heavy and moderately hard wood.The heartwood is pale reddish-brown, yellowish-red to red, darkening to dark yellowish-brown, reddish-brown to medium dark-brown on exposure, sharply differentiated from the yellowish-white, pale yellowish-brown, pinkish-brown or greyish-brown sapwood. Dark streaks may be rather prominent. The specific gravity is 625-880 kg/m³ at 15% m.c. The grain is interlocked and sometimes wavy, producing a special figure, texture moderately fine but uneven. Freshly cut wood has a fragrant odor, but dried wood has no characteristic odor or taste. Planed surfaces have a high lustrous satiny sheen [16]. At 15% m.c. the modulus of rupture is 82-101 N/mm², modulus of elasticity10,800-14,300 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 47-64 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain 11-12 N/mm², shear 15-18 N/mm², cleavage c. 60 N/mm² radial and 71 N/mm² tangential and Janka side hardness 8,9909,230 N. The rates of shrinkage are rather low: from green to 15% m.c. 1.3% radial and 1.7% tangential, from green to oven-dry 3.9% radial and 6.0% tangential. Usually the wood dries fairly rapidly without degrade, but a slight tendency to check and warp and some liability to collapse have been reported. Fine surface hair checks may develop when drying thick boards. In Malaysia kiln schedule E is recommended. Tests in Malaysia showed that the wood is difficult to very difficult to saw and cross cut, slightly difficult to turn, very difficult to bore, but easy to plane. It produces a moderately

smooth finish, but some picking up of grain may occur on quartersawn material during planing and moulding. However, tests in other areas showed that the wood can be easily sawn and machined. Surian batu has good nailing and screw-holding properties, it can be stained effectively and polished excellently. The steam bending properties are rated as good. It can be readily peeled and sliced into veneers and the veneer can be glued satisfactorily into decorative plywood. In Malaysia Chukrasia is considered as moderately durable under exposed conditions, but elsewhere it is sometimes classified as non-durable. The resistance against termite attack varies from good to poor. The wood is moderately to extremely resistant to preservative treatment [12,16].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Chukrasia consists of one or possibly two species and is distributed in Nepal, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Southern China, Indochina, (Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam), Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia, (Kalimantan), and Japan [8,12,16]. It is a species of the wet tropics, strongly localized today because of over-exploitation in the past decennia [12]. It usually grows on limestone mountains, at altitudes below 800 m, mixed with Dracontomelum dao, Garcinia spp., and Peltophorum tonkinensis [8]. In Vietnam below 800 m, usually on limestone mountains mixed with Pentace tonkinensis, Garcinia spp., Amoora gigantea and Dracontomelum duperreanum [2]. C. tabularis grows also in dense forests of India and the Indochinese and Malay Peninsulas [4]. Chukrasia is usually found scattered in lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest, moist semi-evergreen forest or deciduous forest at 300-800 m altitude. In Peninsular Malaysia it occurs occasionally as colonist on bare land including road cuttings and abandoned shifting cultivation areas [5,16,26]. Major stands of

countries outside Southeast Asia such as Nigeria, Cameroon, South Africa, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Costa Rica [20].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : In its natural surroundings the annual precipitation is 1800-3800 mm and more. Minimum temperature range 2.5-15.5 ºC, maximum 36.0-40.5 ºC [16]. Grows below 800 m, slow growing and lightdemanding but shade tolerant when young [2,8]; also on limestone in Sarawak (East Malaysia) [16]. On average this species thrives at elevations from 0-900 m with mean annual precipitation of 14004000 mm/ m² distributed evenly over the summer months, tolerating a dry season of up to 5 months. The mean annual temperature should lie in the range of 20-25ºC. C. tabularis will tolerate 850 mm annual rainfall but react with slow growth. The area of distribution would be confined by a north-south extension of 27º N to 0º N [12]. Open vegetation provides good growth condition as it is a lightdemanding species tolerating shade only at a young age [12, 26]. Chucrasia has the ability to selfprune,coppice, pollard, while being tolerant to wind and shade [26].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined.

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C. tabularis are found in India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Malaysia. It has been planted in many

4

M. soil and site conditions : Chukrasia usually avoids heavy wet soils, it is found on limestone [8], occasionally on bare land [16]. It will grow on limestone soils, brown forest soils and alluvial soils but remain stunted on infertile calcareous soils. Soil types may include alfisols, alluvial soils,cambisols and limestone soils [12]. Soil acidity may vary from pH 4.0 to almost neutral with pH 7.5. Free drainage must prevail, the ground can be level or steeply sloping, preferrably with a south exposition [12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Chucrasia wood exhibits some of the beauty of a typical mahogany. It is used in construction and furniture-making [2]. Highly prized for high grade cabinet work [4]; decorative panelling, interior applications such as doors, windows, flooring, for carving and turnery. It is also used for railway sleepers, ship and boat building, furniture, musical instruments, including pianos, packing cases, sporting goods, truck beds, mallet heads, anvil blocks, brush wares, drawing equipment, rifle butts, sliced and rotary cut veneer, plywood, wood-based panels and pulp [12]. In India it is also used for medium heavy construction work, posts, beams, scantlings and planks. [8,16] [Non-Wood]: Young leaves and bark have a high tannin content and the bark yields a reddish gum which is sold together with gums from other trees [12.16]. The bark is adstringent and is used in traditional medicine as a febrifuge. Also. the bark contains 15% of tannin, the leaves even more with 22%. If adequately treated flowers will yield either a yellow or a red dye [12]. In South China an extract from twigs has been used as a repellent against Pieris rapae, an insect damaging rice plants

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[12].

5

Chucrasi tabularis could make a valuable component of agroforestry landuse. Because of its selfpruning properties and the straight bole it can be used as an alley tree in combination with banana, citrus or guave fruit trees as intercrops [12].

O. Cambodian wood classification : First Class [4,18]

P. Silviculture and management : Chukrasia has been planted in many countries outside Southeast Asia, e.g. in Nigeria, Cameroon, South Africa, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Costa Rica. Natural regeneration in the evergreen forests of India is adequate but it is sparse in the semi-evergreen forests. C. tabularis is regarded as a pioneer species and common in former shifting cultivation areas. Young trees coppice well [16]. "In India, growth of seedlings proved moderately fast in the first 2 years. After the first 2 years the plants had reached a height of 1.2-2.1 m , after 3 years 2.8-3.4 m, with a diameter of 4-5 cm and after 6 years 5.5 m tall and a diameter of 15 cm indicating a mean annual diameter increment of 2.5 cm". Another source from India records a height of 6.6 m and a diameter of 5.2 cm for 5-year-old plants. A planting trial in western Java using seeds from Sumatra showed a mean height of 13 m and a mean diameter

of 18 cm 10 years after planting. In the arboretum of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia the largest tree, aged 33 years, had attained a height of 33 m, a clear bole of 16m and a diameter of 66 cm after 40 years. Chukrasia also grows well in plantations on exposed sites and may achieve over 1 cm diameter increment annually [16]. C. tabularis can be propagated vegetatively from stem and root cuttings (Rashid et al., 1986). Stem cuttings from juvenile material have a 97% success rate, while for root cuttings it is only 50%. About 10,800 seedlings can be produced from a single harvest of shoots from one-year-old stock plants growing in a hedge bed area of 100 m² (Pandit, 1996) [12]. For plantations, sites are generally prepared by burning after clear felling; however, since seedlings are sensitive to drought, efforts should be made to reduce the danger of early mortality, such as providing partial shade with faster-growing species. This technique is used in West Bengal (Forest Research Institue India, 1974) [12].

At least three weedings during the rainy season are necessary for the first three years. The seedlings are liable to attack by shoot borers; hence, mixture with other, non-meliaceous, species is desirable. As it has a tendency to branch and fork, thinnings, especially the early ones, should be comparatively light. C. tabularis can be badly browsed and debarked by deer and therefore fencing around plantations is necessary [12].

Q. Propagation : orchard establishment. Research work with provisionally selected plus-trees from a wild population was succesfully carried out for the establishment of a clonal orchard by the Chittagong University of Bangladesh. Equally effective for orchard establishment is patch budding [12]. C. tabularis regenerates naturally through seed, which is generally satisfactory, as well as through coppice. Ripe fruits, collected from trees during March and April, are spread out in the sun for 2-3 days to dehisce, and the seeds are separated by gentle thrashing, care being taken to protect them from being blown away, or capsules are dried in shade until they split open, and the seeds are released by gentle tumbling or shaking. An adult tree with a good crown size can produce 8-16 kg of fruits, giving 1-2 kg of seeds. The number of seeds per kilogram varies from 45,000 to 100,000; germinative capacity varies from 25 to 90%. Seeds can be stored in gunny bags for about 5 months, being recalcitrant to intermediate. Direct sun drying should be avoided, as it may cause overheating and desiccation of the sensitive seeds. Seeds require no pretreatment and are sown with overhead shade in light porous soil. Germination is fair: in Malaysia 35% of the seeds sown germinated in 1-2.5 weeks, in India 8090% in 1-4 weeks. Where seed is plentiful, the best method is broadcast sowing in strips 0.6 m wide and 1.8 m apart. Best results have been obtained by raising seedlings in well-drained boxes and pots before transplanting. Seedlings are pricked out and transplanted to the nursery beds when about 1 month old and 6-8 cm high. The species can also be propagated by air-layering, entire transplants or stumps. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; loss in viability after 1 year of hermetic air-dry storage at

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Shoots from stock plants can be cut every 21-24 days. Juvenile cuttings have been fond suitable for

6

room temperature; little loss in viability (by 4%) following 6 months of hermetic storage at 10 deg. C with 6% mc. Fresh seed retain its viability for a relatively short period, about 3 months. [26].

R. Hazards and protection : As a member of the Meliaceae family Chukrasia populations world-wide remain heavily infested by the shoot borer Hypsipyla robusta. The fact that many trees show the tendency to fork early, indicates that this may be a trait attributable to the destruction of leader shoot buds by Hypsipyla. Light to moderate or lateral shading has led to some reduction of Hypsipyla damage. It is evident that, it a a long-term solution is needed, then it can only be expected from genetics research with Hypsipyla resistant clones. A related research program has been initiated at the Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences at Chittagong University, Bangladesh. Damage caused by the collar borer Plagiophleus longiclavis can be controlled by spraying the soil around the stem collar with Furadan 3G, a commercial product on the basis of carbofuran as active ingredient [12].

S. Conservation : Red-listed because of near-exhaustion of seed trees, therefore an endangered species in Vietnam [2].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : East to Southeast Asia, native: West and South Africa, Central America, introduced [12,16].

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V. Miscellaneous4 :

7

Chukrasia is a very distinctive genus among the genera of the tribe Swietenieae of the subfamily Swietenioideae. It is characterized by the large flowers, the more or less entire staminal tube, and the arrangement and number of seeds [11,16].

W. Further readings5 : Chudnoff, M., 1980:Tropical timbers of the world.For.Prod. Lab., USDAForest Service pp.591-592. Gamble JS, 1984. A manual of Indian timbers. (Reprint) Dehra Dun, India: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. Latif MA, Younus-uzzaman M, Gupta SRD, De BC, 1989. Natural durability of some important timber species of Bangladesh. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 18(1-2):31-35; 6 ref Mabberley DJ, 1995. Meliaceae. In: Dassanayake MD, ed. A Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Vol.9. Washington D.C., USA: Smithsonian Institution and National Science Foundation, 229-30 Rai SN, 1985. Notes on nursery and regeneration technique of some species occurring in southern tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Karnataka (India) Part II. Indian Forester, 111(8):644-657; 3 ref.

Sekhar AC, Sharma RS, 1965. Physical and mechanical properties of woods tested at FRI. Report 9. Indian Forest Records. Venkataramany P, Rashid MA, Joshi HB, Venkataramanan SV, Ram Parkash, 1981. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol. 3. India: Govt. of Indian Press, 160-164.

X. References:

2) NGUYEN et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.

4) DY PHON, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. , Nat. Herbar. Nederlande, Univ. Leiden Br. Leiden The Netherlands , 349 pp.

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

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8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte

B. English name (s)

³

Chinese cassia [7]

C. Synonym

³

None known.

D. Other1

³

cannelier, cannelle (France) [4, 7] - gudatvak (India) [7]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

eTBirU Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tep porou [1], tep tieru [4], tepirou [5], teep piiruu [7] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Phylum: Spermatophyta

1

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Lauraceae Family: Lauraceae Gunus: Cinnamomum Schaefer Species: Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte

Source :[ 5,8]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Cinnamomum cambodianum is an evergreen large tree with a height of 15-25 m [1] (-17 m [2], 10-15 m [4, 7]) with a large and dense crown. The trunk is usually straight and cylindrical with a beautiful form and a DBH of 30-80 cm [1] (30-50 cm [2]). All parts of the stem are aromatic.

[Bark]: The outer bark is greyish and sparsely covered with lenticels. The inner bark is 1.2-1.5 cm [2] thick, yellowish white and aromatic. [Leaves]: The rounded leaves are opposite and oval, 6-15 x 3-8 cm [1] (9 x 4 cm [7], 12-14 x 7-9 cm [2]). [Flowers]: The flowers are small, bisexual (=hermaphrodite), arranged in sub-terminal or axillary stalks and of light yellow color . [Fruits]: The fruit is egg-shaped and 6-8 mm [1] in diameter. The color of young fruits is grey-yellow, turning to red-brown when mature. [1, 2, 4, 7]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Cinnamomum spp. is a light-weight to medium-weight hardwood. The heartwood varies in color from greyish green to pinkish, reddish or pale brown, sometimes turning red brown or walnut brown on exposure (reddish-grey for C. cambodianum [1]) and is usually not distinctly demarcated from the straw colored pale pink or pale brown sapwood (pale grey for C. cambodianum [1]. The density is 0.37-0.86 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [9]. Other wood properties: "Modulus of rupture at 12% mc: 44-93.5 N/mm². Modulus of elasticity 7,315-12,570 N/mm². Compression parallel to grain: 28-52 N/mm². Compression perpendicular to grain: approx. 5.5N/ mm². Rates of shrinkage (from green to 12% mc): 1.6% (radial), 4.8% (tangential). Rates of shrinkage (from green to oven dry): 3.3% (radial), 5.7% (tangential)" [9].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 30°N to 30°S [8]. This tree species is found in Cambodia and Vietnam, in dense and moist primary and secondary forests along river- and stream banks in valleys and at the foot of mountains. There it grows in clusters of 5-10 trees [1] usually mixed with Elaeocarpus dubius, Actinodaphne pilosa, Polyanthia cerasoides, Michelia balansae and Canarium album. In Cambodia it can also be found in evergreen hill mountain forests in the upper slopes of Bokor and the Cardamon Mountains and in Ratanakiri and Kampong Thom. [1, 2, 7, 8]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Normally it occurs at altitudes of 600-700 m a.s.l. [1, 4] (200-600 m [2]) but in Cambodia it is also found at altitudes up to 1,500 m a.s.l. [1]. Cinnamomum is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions. It tolerates short periods of drought. As a forest tree it is partially shade tolerant, but mature trees grow well in full sunshine. [1, 2, 4, 8]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1, 9]

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Central Annamites. [1] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Ratanak Kiri (X:732948 Y:1551895), Ratanak Kiri (X:732419 Y:1567241), Ratanak Kiri (X:766785 Y:1500486), Ratanak Kiri (X:701601 Y:1570885), Ratanak Kiri (X:728014 Y:1536309), Kampong Thom (X:544510 Y:1403022). [1]

M. soil and site conditions : C. cambodianum grows well in deep fertile and moist soils. However it also occurs in well drained leached hillside soils of low fertility and strong acidity with a pH of 4-6 [8]. It also tolerates short periods of waterlogging. [1, 2, 8]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The timber is straight and white and can be used in construction, for sawing boards, columns, posts and farming implements. It is also used for fuelwood. [2, 6] [Non-wood]: The bark is also chewed with betel or is used in the kitchen as food. It also contains an essential oil that is used in traditional medicine: "Main actions are a warming stimulant, carminative, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

anti-spasmodic and antiseptic. It has also been reputedly used for indigestion, tuberculosis and

3

regulation of menstrual pains. The stem bark is often used as a cardiac tonic, anti flatulent and relieves fatigue. Steam inhalation of the leaves are used to treat nasal cataracts. Patients treated with other anti coagulants should be monitored carefully whilst taking this herb, due to the coumarin contents in the herb" [7]. [1, 2, 4, 6, 7] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [10]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: C. cambodianum grows in dense and moist primary and secondary forests along river and stream banks in valleys and at foot of mountains. There it occurs in clusters of 5-10 trees [1] usually mixed with Elaeocarpus dubius, Actinodaphne pilosa, Polyanthia cerasoides, Michelia balansae and Canarium album. In Cambodia it can also be found in evergreen hill mountain forests. It is a shade demanding tree when young but mature trees grow well in full sunshine. [1, 2, 7]

Q. Propagation : Generally, natural regeneration is very good under the forest canopy. [Seed Collection]: "Seeds are usually collected from the tree or from the ground by shaking the branches. In seed source areas, the ground is usually cleared and sometimes burnt to prepare for seed collection. To ease collection, a cover can be spread out on the ground. The optimal time of collection is reached when the fruits have changed in color from green to brownish. Maturity can be confirmed by a cutting test" [1]. [1, 2]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Ceylon cinnamon pests, which have also been reported on other Cinnamomum are caterpillars of the cinnamon butterfly (Chilasa clytia), leafminers (Acrocerops spp.), caterpillars of a leafwebber (Sorolopha archimedias), and mole crickets (Gryllotalpha spp.) damaging young seedlings" [8]. [Diseases]: "Diseases may include stripe canker (Phytophtora cinnamomi), pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor, Syn: C. javanicum), white rot (Fomes lignosus), rust (Aecidium cinnamomi) and anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata). A serious witches broom disease has been recently found on Chinese cassia in Vietnam. Control with the natural antibiotic berberine has been successful" [8].

S. Conservation : exploitation and is in danger of extinction unless measures are taken to provide adequate protection illegal logging. The number of mature trees has been reduced significantly and it is now difficult to find significant sources of germplasm. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte as a priority species in need of immediate conservation intervention and appropriate protection" [1].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : It has been found in the upper slopes of Bokor and the Cardamon Mountains and in Ratanakiri and Kampong Thom in Cambodia. Cinnamomum cambodianum is endemic to Cambodia. [1, 4]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Cambodia, Vietnam [1] [Introduced]: Apparently this species does not occur yet outside of its natural range. [3]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

"As the wood is very valuable and in high demand, this species is under high pressure from over-

4

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Chemical properties]: "Volatile oils up to 4% (cinnamaldehyde 65-75% & eugenol 4-10%), tannins, coumarins, and mucilage" [7].

W. Further readings5 : No information available.

X. References: [1] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[2] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[3] Bertram, A. (2006): Own observations.

[4] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[5] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

5

[6] FAO: The State of Forest Management and Conservation in Cambodia http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

[7] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[8] PROSEA, 1999: Plant Resources of South East Asia 13 - Spices

[9] PROSEA, 1995: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers.

[10] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle

B. English name (s)

³

lime, sour lime, common lime [1]

C. Synonym

³

Limonia aurantifolia Christm. & Panzer (1777), Citrus javanica Blume (1825), Citrus notissima Blanco (1837) [1], Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Citrus acida Roxb., Citrus hystrix ssp. acida (Roxb.) Engl., Citrus lima Lunan, Citrus limetta var. aromatica Wester, Citrus medica var. acida (Roxb.) Hook. f., Limonia acidissima Christm. [2]

D. Other1

³

lime acide, limettier, limettier acide (France) [1, 4] jeruk nipis, jeruk pecel (Indonesia) [1] - limau asam, limau nipis (Malaysia) [1] - muli (Papua New Guinea) [1] - dayap (Philippines) [1] - naaw (Laos) [1] - somma nao, manao (Thailand) [1] - chanh, chanh ta (Vietnam) [1]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

1

RkUcqµamUl/RkUcqµaExµr/RkUcqµa Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krôôch chhmaa muul [1], kroôch chmâa [4], kro:ch chma: khmè [7]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Rutales [2] / Sapindales [5] Family: Rutaceae Gunus: Citrus Species: Citrus aurantifolia

Source :[ 2]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small evergreen tree with a height of 5 m [1] (8 m [4]). Crown is dense and irregularly branched with armed twigs bearing short stiff and sharp spines. Root suckers and suckers on older branches are characterized by stout sharp spines and are common. All growing parts of the plant are deliciously smelling. [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, elliptic to egg-shaped or opposite egg-shaped, 4-8 cm x 2-5 cm [1] (3-8 cm × 2-5 cm [5]) with a bluntly toothed margin. The leaf-tip is pointed; the leaf-base is rounded, with gland dots and hairless. [Flowers]: Inflorescences are short alternate, 1-7(-10)-flowered [1] (7 flowers [4]). The flowers are either perfect or male, small and often solitary or in few clusters in the axils of the leaves on shoots which have just flushed. Outer flower leaves are cup-shaped, 4-6-lobed. Inner flower leaves (=petals) 4-6 [1] (4 [4]), each one 8-12 mm long [1] and sweet-smelling. Stamens (=male organ) 20-25(-34) [1]. Ovary (=female organ) 9-12(-15)-celled [1], style abruptly distinct. "The stigma is receptive as the flower opens and remains so for a few days. Pollen is not released until the flower has opened. Copious secretion of nectar by a floral disk attracts insects, especially honey bees, which pollinate the flowers. Self-pollination occurs, but self-incompatibility limits fruit set" [1]. [Fruits]: The fruit (=berry) is globe-shaped to egg-shaped, 3-6 cm in diameter [1] (4-6 cm [5]), sometimes with apical papillae. The thin skin (peel) is greenish-yellow when ripe, leathery, rough and

juicy and fragrant. Seeds are small, plump, egg-shaped, pale and smooth with white embryos (polyembryonic). Generally the 'West Indian' limes from Central America have a larger fruit than in other regions. The fruit ripens after 5.5-6 months [1]. [1, 4, 5]

I. Wood properties: No information available.

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : The lime grows naturally in the lowland tropics, most commonly in coastal regions and is now cultivated throughout the tropics and in warm subtropical areas [1, 5].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : It grows up to an altitude of 0-1,000 m a.s.l. [1] or more (0-2,200 m [5]). The tree needs a warm climate and is sensitive to cold but quite drought resistant. [1, 5]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

contains aromatic oil glands. The segments consist of yellow-green pulp-vesicles which are very acid,

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Limes can even grow on poor soils and tolerates heavier soils than oranges, if good drainage prevents waterlogging. [1]

N. Utilization and importance : In Cambodia the tree is primarily cultivated for its fruits. [Wood]: No information available. [Non-wood]: Limes are an everyday ingredient of the food in South-East Asia. The fruit is used in nearly every home in South-East Asia mainly to flavor food, but also to prepare drinks. "The rich flavor and acid taste make lime a favorite for hot and spicy dishes, either fresh or in the form of pickles and sauces. The refreshing qualities come to the fore in lime juice, lime tea and the use on other fruit, e.g. papaya. In Malaysia the fruit is preserved in brine and vinegar; it is enjoyed as an appetizer when fried in oil with sugar added" [1]. In Cambodia fruits are candied and used to flavor poultry-meat dishes. It is also broadly used in Cambodian medicine: The leaves and fruits have many medicinal uses, some of which are linked with the belief that limes drive evil spirits away. "The juice and pulp of fruits contain citric acid and vitamin C. Both young and old leaves contain the coumarin isopimpinellin. The volatile oils consists of limonene. sabinene, terpinolene, citral, alpha- and beta pinenes, alpha terpinol, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

linalool, alpha bergamotene and beta bisabolene. The coumarins include limettin, bergamottin,

3

bergapten, dimethoxycoumarin and gamma geranoxypsoralen isoimperatoren. This is a main source of vitamin C. The leaves are steamed with Cymbopogon nardus to relieve the symptoms of cold and flu. The fresh fruits have reputedly been used as an expecorant and a cough remedy. There is limited medicinal use of lime, although there have been numerous studies on immuno-modulatory effects. Lime is commonly used as a photosynthesizer for suntan preparations" [4]. [Others]: No information available. [1, 4, 7]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [Establishment]: The juvenile phase lasts about 5 years. [5] [Management]: Lime is an everbearing tree [5]. "Under dry conditions irrigation is necessary to obtain good quality fruits. Unpruned trees have a dense twiggy canopy and crowded branches may die back due to competition. Hence, trees are pruned to thin the branches and to remove suckers and limbs

infected by canker. To influence the harvest time, irrigation is withheld for 3 weeks in the dry season; resumption of irrigation triggers a flush which brings on flowering" [1]. [Harvesting]: The fruit needs 5.5-6 months [1] from flowering to harvest. "The fruit is harvested by hand when it is mature green or yellow. Immature fruits, although less juicy, may be included during the season of poor supplies. In Thailand there is little fruit in March-April. This may be due to early ripening (coloring) of the fruit during the cool dry period of December-February. Alternatively, the gap in supplies may be caused by poor flowering or fruit set during September-October (the second half of the rainy season)" [1]. [Production]: "Layered trees can produce fruits in the second year after planting, but growers aim at maximum growth to get a more substantial crop in the third year. The average yield of lime in Thailand during the 1988/1989 season was 2,400 kg/ha. In India trees are expected to bear 600-1,500 fruits per year. A single tree in the home garden can meet a family's requirements. Urban people depend on this fruit which is produced in orchards" [1].

Q. Propagation : "Unlike other citrus species, limes are rarely propagated by budding. In South-East Asia, air layering is the normal method, elsewhere the trees are raised from seed. Sturdy twigs, preferably suckers, are selected for layering and the dust of coconut husk after fiber extraction is the medium used in Thailand. The layers are potted and nursed for 2-4 weeks before planting" [1].

[Pests]: "The obnoxious citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella) causes leaf malformation and early leaf fall. The pest affects almost every tree and to the extent that flowering is diminished. Control by insecticides is difficult because the caterpillars are relatively safe in their tunnels in the underside of the leaves, and life cycles are short and overlap. The increased use of insecticides seems to have aggravated the pest, perhaps because predators are more vulnerable" [1]. [Diseases]: "High incidence of bacterial canker is a limiting factor in the wet tropics. Limes are susceptible to tristeza virus, but the more serious threat is bacterial canker (Xanthomonas campestris p.v. citri), which shortens the life of trees by girdling the trunk. The bacteria can infect any part of the tree through wounds; even the stings of sucking insects afford entry. The bacteria are distributed by rain. Strict orchard hygiene, i.e. removal of infested branches, spraying with copper early in the rainy season, and spraying with streptomycin are recommended" [1].

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : It was introduced into Cambodia where the fruit is widely cultivated. [4]

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R. Hazards and protection :

4

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: India [7] [Introduced]: Asia (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Vietnam) Central America: (Mexico, Dominica) Africa: (Ghana) [1, 7]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [World Production]: "According to FAO statistics the world produced 6 million t of limes and lemons (Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.) in 1988, the figures showing a rising trend. The lime crop is by far the smaller of the two, but since lemons are hardly grown in South-East Asia, the following FAO figures must refer to limes: Cambodia 1,000 t, Laos 8000 t, Malaysia 3,000 t, Thailand 1,000 t. Statistical data from Thailand give a more realistic production estimate of 53,600 t from a total area of 29,100 ha in 1987/1988. Trade statistics show that exports from Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand are insignificant in relation to domestic consumption. Large-scale production for the international trade in Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

juice and oil is mainly found in Central America (hence the names Mexican lime or West Indian lime),

5

Dominica and Ghana" [1] [Fruit properties]: "The mature yellow fruit usually has a thin rind and a very acid juice: 7-8% citric acid by weight. The juice extract is about 41% of the fruit weight. Analyses in Thailand give the following composition per 100 g edible portion: water 91 g, protein 0.5 g, fat 2.4 g, carbohydrates 5.9 g, fibre 0.3 g, vitamin A 17 IU, vitamin C 46 mg; energy value is about 150 kJ per 100 g" [1].

W. Further readings5 : Sethpakdee, R., 1992. Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle. In Coronel, R.E. & Verheij, E.W.M. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 2: Edible fruits and nuts. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 126-128. [6]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [3] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of

Commercial Woods, unpublished [4] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses. [5] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=2242&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source) [6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=18077 (Internet source) [7] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[8] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Citrus hystrix DC]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Citrus hystrix DC] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Citrus hystrix DC

³

Mauritius papeda, leech-lime [1], kaffir lime, kieffer lime [5], Indonesian lime, wild lime [7]

C. Synonym

³

Citrus papuana Bail. [6]

D. Other1

³

citron combera, citron ride (France) [1, 3] - jeruk purut, limo purut, jeruk obat (Indonesia) [1, 5] - limau purut (Malaysia) [1] - kabuyau, kulubut, kolobot (Philippines) [1] - shouk-pote (Myanmar) [1] - 'khi 'hout. (Laos) [1] - ma kruut (Thailand) [1] - tr[us]c, chanh s[as]c (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

RkUcesIc

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krauch soeuch [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Rutales [4] / Sapindales [6] Family: Rutaceae Gunus: Citrus Species: Citrus hystrix DC. Source :[ 4]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small tree or shrub with a height of 12 m [1] (5-10 m [3, 8], 6-8 m [6]). Trunk crooked and thin, with slender sharp thorns. There are hybrid forms existing between C. hystrix and C. aurantifolia. [Leaves]: The leaves and inflorescence are similar to those of C. aurantifolia. The leaves are broadly egg-shaped or oblong 3-15 cm x 2-6 cm [1] and of shiny dark color with the leaf-shaped leafstalks sometimes winged together, creating an 'hourglass-shape' of the leaf and leafstalk. [Flowers]: The flowers are small, white and fragrant. [Fruits]: The fruit (=berry) is egg-shaped to ellipsoidal, 5-7 cm [1] (4 cm [5], 8 cm [6]) in diameter, bright green to yellow, with an irregularly rough thick skin and very little edible yellowish green pulp inside of 10-12 segments. The peel of the fruit is very fragrant and the sap is very sour. [1, 3, 5, 6, 8]

I. Wood properties: No information available.

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Citrus hystrix is often grown in home gardens but is not very vigorous. [1]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : The species mainly occurs in lowland areas and is cultivated in the warm regions.

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : [Wood]: No information available. [Non-wood]: In Cambodia it is cultivated for domestic uses. It is widely used in Thai cuisine and Lao cuisine. Leaves are also popular in the west of Cambodia, but less in Vietnam. The Malay and Indonesian (especially Balinese) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish. The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen. Although the most common product are its leaves (which impart a sharp lime/neroli flavor to Thai dishes such as tom yum, and to Indonesian food such as 'sayur assam' which means sour vegetables). "In Thai cuisine, C.hystrix is frequently combined with garlic, galanga, ginger and fingerroot, together with liberal amount of chilies. Fresh Thai basil is needed for the authentic fragrance. The fruit juice, which is very sour and has the same fragrance as the leaves, is used for seasoning and sometimes added to fish or poultry dishes in Malaysia or Thailand" [7]. It is also used to prepare drinks. The fruits may be eaten crystallized, but is often used in slices in religious ceremonies where it is cut in slices and mixed with water. Fruits are also used as

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6, 8]

an insecticide, as a shampoo and treating the feet to kill land leeches. The leaves and the peel of the

2

fruit make condiments. They are sold in all Asian groceries shops around the world. "The rind is sliced, dried slightly and triturated to powder and mixed with Tinospora powder for stomach aches. The juice is also reputedly used as an expectorant. The fruit peels possess carminative properties. Antifertility and repellency effects have both been observed in this species of plant" [3]. "Kaffir lime fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil; main components are limonene and β-pinene" [7]. [Others]: No information available. [1, 3, 5, 7, 8]

N. Utilization and importance : No class [2]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No information available.

P. Silviculture and management : No information available.

Q. Propagation : No information available.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

R. Hazards and protection :

3

No information available.

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : C. hystrix is cultivated in the warm regions of Cambodia. [3]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Malaysia [8] [Introduced]: Cambodia, Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Laos, Brunei, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. [1, 9]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "The Oxford Companion to Food (ISBN 0192115790) recommends that the name 'kaffir lime' should be avoided in favor of makrut lime because Kaffir is an offensive term in some cultures, and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However, kaffir lime appears to be much more common" [5]. "The species name hystrix (Greek hystrix [ὕστριξ] “porcupine”) refers to the many thorns of the plant". [7] [Chemical Properties]: "The compound responsible for the characteristic aroma was identified as (-)(S)-citronellal, which is contained in the leaf oil up to 80%. Minor components are citronellol (10%), nerol and limonene." [7]

W. Further readings5 : No information available.

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[2] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of

[3] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[5] Answers.Com: http://www.answers.com/topic/kaffir-lime (Internet source)

[6] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=713&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source)

[7] Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages Table of Content page: http://www.kfunigraz.ac.at/~katzer/engl/Citr_hys.html (Internet source)

[8] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[9] Petri, M (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Commercial Woods, unpublished.

4

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr] ³

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr

B. English name (s)

³

pummelo, shaddock, pomelo [1], pompelmous [3]

C. Synonym

³

Citrus aurantium L. var. grandis L. (1753), Citrus

A. Latin name

(s)

grandis (L.) Osbeck (1757), Citrus decumana L. (1767). [1]

D. Other1

³

pamplemoussier (France) [1] - jeruk besar, jeruk bali (Indonesia) [1] - jambua, limau betawi, limau bali (Malaysia) [1] - muli (Papua New Guinea) [1] - lukban, suha (Philippines) [1] - shouk-ton-oh (Myanmar) [1] kièngz s'aangz, ph'uk, sômz 'ôô (Laos) [1] - som-o, ma-

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

o (Thailand) [1] - b[uw][owr]i (Vietnam) [1]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

RkUcføúg Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krôoch thlông [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Rutales Family: Rutaceae Gunus: Citrus Species: Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.

Source :[ 4]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small to medium-sized low-branching and spiny tree with a height of 5-10(-15) m [1] (10-15 m [3]). Stems of young trees are hairy and occasionally spines are produced. Branches are spreading, spiny (seed propagation) or spineless (vegetative propagation), with spines up to 5 cm long also hairy when young. [Leaves]: The leaves are egg-shaped to elliptical, 5-10 (-20) cm x 2-5 (-12) cm in size [1] with a rounded base. Leaf margin entire to shallowly wavy, with a pointed leaf tip, glandular dotted. Leafstalk broadly winged, up to 7 cm wide [5], with broad wings. [Flowers]: Inflorescences axillary, with a cluster of a few flowers or a single flower. Flowers are large, 2-3 cm x 3-5 cm [1] when fully expanded and hairy. Flower leaves are creamy-white. Male organs (=stamens) 20-25 (-35) [5], female organ (=ovary) with 11-16 loculi. "In the tropics the trees flower 2-4 times per year, mainly in conjunction with shoot growth flushes. The main flowering period follows the onset of the monsoon rains, unless it is brought forward by irrigation as in Thailand (bloom in JanuaryFebruary). Fruit matures 7-10 months after flowering, in Thailand mainly from August to October. Most cultivars are self-sterile" [1]. [Fruits]: The fruit (=berry) is subglobular to pyriform and large with 10-20(-30) cm in diameter [1], greenish-yellow and densely glandular dotted. The peel is 1-3(-4) cm thick [1] with large segments that contain pale yellow or pink pulp-vesicles, filled with a sweetish sometimes bitter juice. Each

yellowish and monoembryonic. [1, 3, 5, 7]

I. Wood properties: No information available.

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : The pummelo thrives in the lowland tropics and is cultivated in orchards and home gardens for its fruit. [1, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : C.maxima can be grown up to 900 m a.s.l. [5], however the upper limit for commercial fruit production is 400 m a.s.l [1, 5]. It is cultivated in areas with an annual rainfall of 1,500-1,800 mm [1] and a dry season of 3-4 (-5) months [1, 5]. "In Thailand mean monthly temperatures are about 25-30°C with a few cooler (and dry) months" [1]. [1, 3, 5, 7]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

segment of the fruit is covered by a strong membrane. Seeds are usually few, large, plump, ridged,

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : C. maxima tolerates a wide range of soils from coarse sand to heavy clay, including brackish and salty conditions. However, it prefers deep and medium-textured, fertile soils which are free from salts. The best sites are situated on the banks of current and former river courses. [1, 5]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is used for tool handles. [Non-wood]: Pummelo is mainly cultivated for domestic use. In Cambodia the fruits are often eaten fresh out of the hand or in culinary preparations like fruit salads. The white inner part of the peel can be candied after the outer peel containing oil glands has been removed. Sometimes the juice is extracted. "The aromatic flowers are used to make perfume in Vietnam. Even if the fruit is of inferior quality, the tree may still be grown for the medicinal applications of leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds, including the treatment of coughs, fevers and gastric disorders, (cholera and epilepsy [3])" [1]. [Others]: No information available.

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[1, 3, 7]

3

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [2]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: "In South-East Asia pummelo is grown in home gardens, in mixed citrus orchards and in pure pummelo orchards (Thailand, Philippines). In Thailand the areca palm is also found as intercrop, or as a border plant along the ditches where the pummelos are grown on raised beds" [1]. [Establishment]: "Trees are spaced 8-10 m x 6-8 m [1], depending on vigor, on well-prepared land; they are shaded and watered frequently until they are established. The planting material is cut back, especially if bare-rooted. A banana intercrop can serve as windbreak, shade and source of early income" [1]. [Management]: "Young trees are pruned to leave 3 main framework branches, the lowest being at least 30-40 cm [1] off the ground. The trees also need some pruning in later years to keep the tree interior open, to make sure that fruit on sagging branches does not touch the ground, and to remove dead wood. Trees that bear well are propped up with bamboo poles. A cover crop suppresses weeds to some extent, but in the rainy season weeds need to be slashed; early in the dry season the orchard is hoed or treated with herbicide. Mulching under the trees with rice straw or other material is strongly recommended to maintain root growth in the topsoil. Irrigation is important betwenn flowering and

harvest to supplement rain. During the subsequent dry period irrigation is delayed until the trees show signs of wilting. It is customary to force early flowering by irrigating the wilting trees, provided the water supply is secure until the rainy season starts again. Forcing the trees to advance the harvest has its limitations, as it is difficult to sustain new shoot growth and flowering during the hot dry months preceding the rains. Fertilizer requirements of citrus also apply to pummelo, including attention to magnesium and micro-nutrients (Zn, Mn, Cu, B). An annual or biennial dressing with manure forms a good basis. In Nakhon Prathom (Thailand) growers are advised to apply about 5 kg NPK 16-1616/tree/year [1] in bi-monthly applications and foliar fertilizer for every new flush. In the last dressings before harvest potassium-rich NPK 13-13-21 is used to improve fruit taste. Elsewhere 2 fertilizer dressings are recommended, the first before flowering and the second 4-6 months later." Yields depend on cultivar and environment. 70-100 fruit/tree/year (Thailand), 20 t/ha per year (Malaysia)" [1].

Q. Propagation : "Although many trees in home gardens are raised from seed, the common propagation method in South-East Asia is air layering. When certified virus-tested mother trees become available, budding is recommended. Pummelo seedlings of sufficiently uniform populations can be used as rootstocks. In the Philippines shield budding is already the standard method" [1].

R. Hazards and protection : The mixing of different citrus species at the same area complicates crop protection in the orchard. [1] [Pests]: "All the citrus pests seem to be at home on the pummelo, including the obnoxious leaf miners Phyllocnistis citrella (in Java it has been recommended to protect young trees with a mosquito net!),

and vermin (rats)" [1]. [Diseases]: "Pummelo is particularly susceptible to bacterial canker, also on the fruit, following fruit fly stings. Frequent spraying with copper fungicides in Thailand does not give adequate control. Root rot, gummosis on the trunk and brown rot of the fruit, all caused by Phytophthora fungi, appear to shorten the life of many trees in South-East Asia, even though pummelo is not rated as very susceptible" [1].

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Pummelo occurs in the warm regions of Cambodia as an introduced species. [3]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Malaysia [7] [Introduced]: Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Myanmar, Laos

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

leaf-eating caterpillars, fruit-boring caterpillar (Citripestis sp.), scales, red mites, fruit flies, nematodes

[1]

4

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Fruit Properties]: "The edible segments form only a small fraction of the thick-skinned fruit; Thai sources give the composition per 100 g edible portion as: water 89 g, protein 0.5 g, fat 0.4 g, carbohydrates 9.3 g, vitamin A 49 IU, vitamin B1 0.07 mg, vitamin B2 0.02 mg, niacin 0.4 mg and vitamin C 44 mg. Naringin is the characteristic glucoside found in the fruit" [1].

W. Further readings5 : Chaiwongkeit, D. & Chaireongyod, T., 1988. Som O - The pummelo. Bangkok. 76 pp. [1] Chomchalow, N., 1984. Genetic wealth of pummelos in Thailand. IBPGR Newsletter, Regional Committee for South-East Asia 8(3): 27-29. [1] Fachzurozi, L., 1978. Apakah benar jeruk besar (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) mulai menghilang? [Is the pummelo really disappearing?]. Buletin Kebun Raya 3(4): 133-136. [1] Martin, F.W. & Cooper, W.C., 1977. Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise. Part 3: The

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

pummelo. ARS-S-157, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans. 17 pp.

5

[1] Ochse, J.J., Soule, M.J., Dijkman, M.J. & Wehlburg, C., 1961. Tropical and subtropical agriculture. Vol. 1. Macmillan, New York, pp. 486-488. [1]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [2] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished. [3] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [5] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=712&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source) [6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=18078 (Internet source)

[7] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[8] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Cocos nucifera L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Cocos nucifera L.] ³

Cocos nucifera L.

B. English name (s)

³

coconut [2], copra, coconut palm [4]

C. Synonym

³

Calappa nucifera (L.) Kuntze, Cocos nana Griffith [4]

D. Other1

³

coconut (trade name) [8] - narikel (Bangladesh) [8] –

A. Latin name

(s)

mak-un, on (Myanmar) [8] - kokoye (Caribbean) [8] - Coco, Cocos, Cocospalm, Klapperboom (Netherlands) [8] - coco, cocotier, cocoyer, coq au lait, noix de coco (France) [8] Kokospalme (Germany) [8] - kelapa (Indonesia) [8] - kelapa (Malaysia) [8] - coc, tubab sibo (W-Africa) [8] - coco da Bahia, coco da India, coqueiro de Bahia (Portugal) [8] - coco, coco de agua, cocotero, palma de coco, palmera de coco (Spain) [8] - mnazi (E-Africa) [8] - tennai-maram (Sri Lanka)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[8]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

dUg Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ daung, dong [3] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Palmales / Principes [3] / Arecales [4]

Family: Palmae [3] / Arecaceae [4] Gunus: Cocos Species: Cocos nucifera Source :[ 3,4]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium-size to large palm tree, 20-25 m [2] (2-30 m [3]) in height with a cylindrical trunk of 20-40 cm [2] DBH (45 cm [7]). Many rings mark the places of former leaves. "At the summit it bears a crown of about 20 pinnate leaves that generally curve downward, each of which is about 3 to 4.5 m (about 10 to 15 ft) long [7]. [Fruits] The fruit is roughly ovoid, up to 5 cm x 3 cm, composed of a thick, fibrous husk surrounding a spherical nut with a hard, brittle, hairy shell. The nut itself has a size of 2-2.5 cm x 3-4 cm. "Three sunken holes of softer tissue, called ‘eyes’, are at one end of the nut. Inside the shell is a thin, white, fleshy layer known as the ‘meat’. The interior of the nut is hollow but partially filled with a watery liquid called ‘coconut milk’. The meat is soft and jellylike when immature but becomes firm with maturity. Coconut milk is abundant in unripe fruit but is gradually absorbed as ripening proceeds. The fruits are green at first, turning brownish as they mature, yellow varieties go from yellow to brown. [8]" [2, 7, 8]

"The wood is difficult to saw, requiring tungsten carbide teeth" [4]. The central cylinder consists of a parenchymatic tissue enclosing vascular and fibrous bundles. The vascular bundles of the periphery have a higher density than those at the center closely packed with just a few layers of thin-walled cells intervening. [4, 9]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 27°N to 25°S [4], 20°N to 20°S (commercial). It generally occurs between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Occasionally (and decoratively) as far as 30°N and S [9] and in heated glasshouses to 50°+ N and S [9] (note that as the latitude gets higher the altitude limit gets lower with minimum temperature being the controlling factor). It is found throughout the humid tropics, originally in coastal areas in the wild but almost anywhere when cultivated, even in considerable distance inland. [8, 9]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : C.nucifera grows in an altitude of 520-900 m a.s.l. [8] (0-1,000 m [2], 0-1,200 m [4]) but commercially below 300 m [9]. "At 1,000 m they grow vegetatively but do not set fruit (note that the altitude limit

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I. Wood properties:

gets lower as the latitude gets higher and as the minimum temperature gets lower) [9]." A bimodal,

2

uniform rainfall of 1,000-1,500 mm [9] (1,200-2,300 mm [4]) is suitable for cultivation. However, C. nucifera tolerates a dry season of 0-3 months [2] (0-4 months [4]) resulting in a lower nut production. After 6 months of drought the palms stop flower production and death can follow a 9 month drought. Mean annual temperature: 22-35°C [4] (20-28°C [8]) with optimal temperatures at 27-32°C. Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 30-38°C [4]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 16-23°C [4]. Minimum temperature: >7°C [4]. However, established palms have been reported to survive even short periods of sub-zero temperatures [9]. It requires medium to high amounts of sunlight and is intolerant of shade. Precocity (earliness to flower) is delayed by shade and subsequent flowering and fruit setting is prevented by heavy shade. It is highly resistant to winds and salt winds. "Coconuts cannot survive in forests" [9]. [2, 4, 8, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers deep, fertile and adequately drained alluvial coastal sands and sandy loams. It will suffer in clay soils if these are compressed by the movement of vehicles or animals. Rocky, laterite or stagnant soils are also unsuitable [8]. In case of organic (peat) soils a proper management is required. A pH of 5.5-6.5 [4] is preferred but it can grow from 5.0-8.0 [2]. A high water-table or continually replenished surface soil moisture is suitable. "C. nucifera is salt tolerant on the sea coast and responds to

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

fertilization by sodium chloride when inland but it is not a halophile and salt accumulations need

3

flushing away by movement of ground water, by rain or by irrigation" [9]. [2, 4, 8, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The timber is used for poles, construction, furniture, boxes, fixtures, particle board, paper pulp, charcoal, and occasionally veneers which are of lower quality. [4] [Non-wood]: "Besides its nuts, C. nucifera trees are of enormous general utility. Coconut milk may be drunk or used as a medium for tissue culture. The copra (dried endosperm) is used for extraction of oils for use in foods, cosmetics, and medicines. The cori (mesocarp fibres) is used to make handicrafts like mats, ropes, carpets, brushes, brooms, bags and packaging material. The shell is used to make bowls, cups, spoons, ladles, smoking pipes, ashtrays, vases, boxes, and toys. The leaves are used in thatching, and the terminal bud as well as the young green stem may be eaten as a vegetable. The roots have medicinal properties and are also used for livestock, as a deformer, and to relieve bloat and constipation. C.nucifera also provides a sweet sucrose-rich liquid known as toddy. In combination with a slow-release fertilizer the husk from old coir makes a good lightweight potting

medium. It is also important as a dye and tannin-producing plant. The nuts are used for dyeing silk green, and the fruit-stalk is used for coloring teeth black. [2, 4, 5]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No Class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [Management]: Coconut palms cannot survive in most forests but form an integrated part of many agroforestry systems [10]. "Intercropping with yams, cassava, taro, coffee, and species is very common. Interplanting with bananas for the first two years of production or in mixed fruit plantation with mango (Mangifera indica), cocoa, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), citrus (Citrus spp.) and others. Cattle may be grazed under the canopy in plantations older than 6-8 years, usually 2-3 head of cattle per ha. Irrigation during dry period increases fruit yields. Planting cover crops of nitrogen fixing legumes under the canopy also increases yields. Growth: 20 cm/year after juvenile stage. C. nucifera is characterized by a slow growth. Relatively high labor costs are created when the edible portion of the fruit is removed" [2]. It has the ability to self-prune its leaflets. "Fertilizer response to nitrogen on any soil is by increased leaf and flower production but greater susceptibility to fungal foliar infections. Phosphate fertilizer is only required on depleted and or sandy soils. Potash is the major nutrient requirement, improving fruit set and better resistance to leaf infections. Magenesium is required, but not routinely, and boron only when deficiency symptoms become apparent. Other minor elements are

[2, 4, 9, 10]

Q. Propagation : Naturally its nuts are dispersed by the oceans. In general, C. nucifera is propagated from seeds (the nuts), which have to be soaked into water for 1-2 weeks and take 8-10 weeks to germinate. There is no need to shade the nursery. After 30 weeks [4] (20-24 weeks [2]) they reach a planting-out size after the shoot is well established. The seeds are viable for up to 2 years. Vegetative propagation is possible by using tissue culture. Stand establishment is conducted by using natural regeneration or direct sowing. [2, 4]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Insect pests include Aceria guerreronis, Aleurodicus destructor, Artona catoxantha, Aspidiotus destructor, Brontispa longissima, Hidari irava, Homaledra sabalella, Oryctes monoceros, Oryctes rhinoceros, Parasa lepida, Promecotheca, Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, Rhynchophorus vulneratus, Setora nitens, Tirathaba, Xylotrupes gideon. A common vertebrate pest is Rattus rattus. [4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

required on coral atoll soils" [9].

4

[Diseases]: Fungus diseases are Bipolaris incurvata, Cerastomella paradoxa, Corticium penicillatum, Drechslera halodes, Ganoderma boninense, Pestalotiopsis palmarum, Phytophthora palmivora, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus. A known virus disease is Cadang-cadang [4]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Sihanoukville, Kampot, Koh Kong, Phnom Penh, Kandal, Siem Reap, Battambang, Kampong Cham, Kratie, Kampong Speu, Kampong Chnang, Kampong Thom, Pursat, Prey Veng, Sway Rieng, Banteay Meanchey, Takeo. [10]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : C. nucifera originated from the Indo-Malayan to Western Pacific region and is now of pan-tropical distribution.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[4]

5

[Native]: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam. [8]

[Introduced]: Argentina, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Cook Islands, Cote d'Ivoire, Ecuador, Fiji, French Guiana, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, New Caledonia, Niger, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Samoa, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Surinam, Togo, Tonga, Uganda, United States of America, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Zanzibar. [8]

V. Miscellaneous4 :

[Terminology]: "The generic name was derived from the Portuguese word ‘coco’, meaning ‘monkey’" [8] [History]: "C.nucifera appeared some 4,000 years ago (the first mention of a coconut palm in China is found in a Chinese poem of the 20th century B.C.)" [3].

W. Further readings5 : Andrew M.H. (1972) A Century of Coconuts. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=523894 Anonymous IBPGR (1992) Descriptors for Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=523935 Anonymous Coconis (1983) Production physiology in coconut. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=523941

Child R. (1974) Coconuts. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=3328

Edmonson CH, 1941. Viability of coconut seeds after floating in the sea. Bishop Museum. Occasional Papers 16, No. 2.

Foale M.A. (1986) Tabular descriptions of crops grown in the Tropics. 10. Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=7887

Frémond Y. Ziller R. Nucé de Lamothe M. (1966) Le cocotier. G.P.

Gallego VC, San Juan NC, Gallego CE, Concibido EC, Aterrado ED, 1987. Survey and Evaluation of Coconut Pest and Disease Incidence in the Philippines. PCA-ARDB

Annual Report, 77-78.

Grimwood EB. 1975. Coconut palm products. FAO, Rome.

Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text].

Haas A, Wilson L, 1985. Coconut wood. Processing and use. FAO Forestry Paper, No. 57:ii + 58 pp.; [18 pl.]; 12 pp. ref.

Harries H.C. (1978) The evolution, dissemination and classification of Cocos nucifera L. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=524389

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=524485

6

IBPGR (1992) Descriptors for coconut. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=524538

Menon K.P.V. Pandalai K.M. (1958) The coconut palm, a monograph. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=494188

Ohler JG. 1984. Coconut, tree of life. Plant Production and Protection Paper No.57. FAO, Rome. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=212303

Ohler J.G. (1999) Modern Coconut Management. Palm Cultivation and Products. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=497805

Parrotta JA, 1993. Cocos nucifera (L.) Palmae. SO-ITF-SM-57. USDA Forest service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, Institute of Tropical Ecology, New Orleans, LA.

Patel J.S. (1938) The Coconut. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=524452

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

PCARRD, 1993. The Philippine Recommends for Coconut. Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines:

7

PCARRD-DOST.

Ratnambal M.J. Nair M.K. Muralidharan K. Bhaskara Rao E.V.V. Pillai R.V. (1995) Coconut descriptors Part 1. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=500163

Thampan P.K. (1981) Handbook on coconut palm. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=524420

Thanh-Tuyen NT, Apurillo DI, 1992. Plant Regeneration through Somatic Embryogenesis from cultured zygotic embryos of coconut. Philippine Journal of Coconut Studies, 17(1):June

1992.

Velasco JR, 1997. Review of studies on the cadang-cadang disease of coconut. Botanical Review 63: 2, 182-196; 33 ref.

Watling D. Bennett G. (2005) Palms of the Fiji Islands. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=555625 Sources: [1, 4, 5, 9]

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [5] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [6] CTSP, Cambodia Tree Seed Project-Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed Sector , Dec 2003, Forest Gene Conservation Strategy-Part A: Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources. [7] Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2005 © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. (CD-ROM).

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source). [9] EcoPort Report: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source). [10] Petri, Mathias (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[8] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database –

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wallich ex Hook.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wallich ex Hook.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wallich ex Hook. [8,27]

³

melur, also called meloor in English, American,(comprising 4 Dacrydium species);

C. Synonym

³

Dacrydium pierrei Hickel [4]; D. junghuhnii Miq.; D. beccarii Parl. var.subelatum Corner, Juniperus elata Roxb. [8,16,31]

D. Other1

³

Trade name: melur; in Indonesia all timber of the genus Podocarpaceae is traded under the name melur(meloor, En), this includes D. elatum, D. beccarii, D. nidulum; other names are: cemara gunung, sampinur pali, melur ; sangur (Indonesia-Sumatera); ekor kuda, ru bukit, (MalaysiaPeninsular); melor (Malaysia-East); lokinai, (Philippines); taw-kyet, gale pan, (Burma); long len, hi9ng horm, hing nam (Laos); srol kraham (Cambodia); samphanpi, (Thailand-NE); son

hang-karok

(Thailand-central);

phayamakampom

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Thailand-SE); hoàng dàn giâ, (Vietnam).[2,8,16]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ srô:l krâhâ:m [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Pinales Family: Podocarpaceae Gunus: Dacrydium Sol. ex J.G.Forster [16].

Species: Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wall. ex Hook.

Source :[2; 4 ; 11; 16]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Big tree up to 30 m high, with 80 cm diameter, bole straight [2]; tree, 20-30 m tall with straight trunk [4]; tree up to 20 m tall [5]; trees up to 40 m high, up to 100 cm diameter, bole straight, crown a billowy dome with tufts of more or less erect branches [8]. Evergreen, usually dioecious, small to fairly large trees up to 40 m tall, or less often shrubs (stunted trees). Bole cylindrical; up to 70 (100) cm diameter, with pyramidal shape; branches verticillate, slightly pendulous when young; branches often ramified, often curving upwards, the ultimate branches aggregated into dense tufts. [8, 16] [Bark]: Brown, to grey brown, dark or reddish-brown, weathering to grey; slightly flaking, often fluted at base [5]; bark surface hard, and smooth with fissures, breaking off in plates with many small lenticels [8,16]. [Leaves]: There are 2 types of leaves(dimorphic): On young trees and on young twigs leaves curvedly awl-shaped with quadrangular (tetragonal) cross-section, 0.8-1.6 cm long, sometimes 2.0-2.1 cm. On older trees and branches leaves are shorter and slightly curved Flower and fruit-bearing branches with-scale-like leaves, slightly curved, imbricate, tip acute, 0.3-0.5 cm long, longitudinally fissured [2].

near end of fertile twigs much smaller, ± 0.15 cm triangular and scale-like [5]. Leaves dimorphic, spirally arranged. Young leaves and leaves on young trees awl-shaped, imbricate, 0.8-2.0 cm long. Leaves and twigs with cones scale-like and triangular, hard, base decurrent , apex often curved [8 ]. Adult leaves imbricate, triangular and scale-like, sharply keeled outside, 1.0-1.5 mm x 0.4-0.6 mmm; apex of microsporophyll triangular; mature seed completely exposed above short cone bract, 4.0-4.5 mm long [16]. Flower- and fruit-bearing branches with scaly leaves, slightly curved, imbricate, tip acute, 0.3-0.5 cm long, longitudinally fissured [2]. [Fruit]: Cones monosexual, dioecious, similar to Podocarpus. Male cone solitary and terminal, cylindrical, 0.7-0.8 cm long . Female cones solitary or arranged in small groups, axillary or terminal, apex of microsporophyll triangular. Only one carpel and one ovule develop. Seeds ovoid, having ashen form, 0.4-0.5 cm long by 0.2-0.3 cm wide, 1/3 of base covered with pseudopericarp [2]. Seed cones 0.5 x 0.3 cm, nut-like ovoid, obliquely seated on dark-red shallow fleshy cup (podophyll) [5]. Seeds ovoid, suberect, 1/3 of the base covered by epimatium [8]. Mature seed completely exposed above the short cone tract, 4.0-4.5 mm long. Flowering in March, fruiting in October-November [2]. Cones in February to April, mature ones October, November [8].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Leaf 0.8-1.6 cm pressed close to twigs, overlapping, needlelike, with long, tapering tip, shiny. Leaves

2

I. Wood properties: The following technological data are average values applying to the Genus Dacrydium, since no information is given for selected species due to the limited volume traded. Dacrydium yields a lightweight to medium-weight softwood. ( In trade softwood generally means coniferous species, hardwood means broadleaved species. Hence, in principle a softwood may be harder than a hardwood and vice versa). The heartwood is yellow-brown, pinkish yellow, golden, pale to brown or red-brown, not clearly demarcated from the sapwood. The specific gravity is 425-720kg/m³ at 15% m.c. The grain is fine, straight, rarely wavy, texture fine and even, resistant to bending and pressing. The wood generally lacks figure, occasionally with fine dark streaks giving an attractive appearance; without taste or odor [16]. A test in Fiji on D. nidulum wood at 12% m.c. provided the following figures: Modulus of rupture 106 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 11590 N/mm², compression parallel to grain (fiber direction) 61.5 N/mm², shear 14 N/mm², cleavage 38 N/mm² radial and 54.5 N/mm² tangential; Janka side hardness 5430 N and Janka end hardness 8635 N. The rates of shrinkage (indicating dimensional stability when moisture content decreases) are fairly low to moderate from green to 12% m.c. 2.0% radial and 4.5% tangential. The wood seasons well with very little collapse, but thicker boards must be dried slowly to avoid surface checking. Warping in the form of slight to moderate twist may occasionally occur, while backsawn boards may cup to a slight extent. The recommended kiln schedule (for artificial drying) is at a dry bulb temperature of 6580 ºC. Kiln-drying 25 mm (=1 inch English-American measure) of D. nidulum wood from green to 12% m.c takes about 3-4 days and 50 mm thick boards take about 2 weeks. The timber can also easily be

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

air-dried under cover. A high humidity treatment should be given to relieve stresses, but when

3

considerable twist occurs, a saturated steaming treatment for 2-4 hours should be given instead. The wood is stable in service. Dacrydium timber is easy to saw and works well with hand and machine tools.The wood turns and planes well to a smooth surface and takes a high polish. Gluing, nailing and peeling properties of D. elatum are satisfactory [16].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : A rare species found only in a few provinces of Vietnam [2] It occurs on mountains of countries with monsoonal rains; in India, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Sumatra, western Borneo/Indonesia, Fiji Islands. In Cambodia on Mt. Bokor mixed with Dacrycarpus imbricatus, however, height of neither of the 2 species exceeded 2-4 m (stunted growth, dwarf forest) because of the harsh climate and seasonal changes between drought and flooding. It is also found in low, dense coastal forests but always in a dwarf state.[4] Occurs in montane and heath forests, often associated with Pinus merkusii, along mountain creeks in high valleys. It seems that habitat requirements limit its distribution,- this is at least valid for Laos [7]. Genus Dacrydium comprises about 25 species and is distributed from mainland Southeast Asia through Malesia towards the Pacific Islands, New Zealand and Southern Chile (South America). 5

species occur in Peninsular Malaysia; also scattered in moist rain forests at 1300-1700 m a.s.l., but also found in tropical forests up to 2000 m. [8] It is often associated with Podocarpus spp., and Agathis spp. [2], also mixed with Castanopsis spp., Cupressus spp., Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Fokienia hodginsii and Illicium griffithii in evergreen montane forests [4,8, 16].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Dacrydium is found in moist, evergreen montane forests between 500-and 2000 m a.s.l. It is a light demanding species preferring a cool climate, yellow soil, moist and rich in humus. [2,4, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : unknown

M. soil and site conditions : D. elatum occurs on limestone soils, or stony soils on mountains, on humid, yellow, humus-rich soils, but also podsolic heath forests [2,4,7.8]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Dacrydium elatum is probably the main source of sempilor timber in southeast Asia. Dacrydium timber is red [4], resinous and relatively hard and used for light construction, furniture, joinery, mouldings, light-traffic flooring, door and window frames, masts, interior finish, veneer and plywood, and packing cases. It is suitable for pulp and paper production, but also used for bridges, boats, in shipbuilding, and fine arts.

but also in some form against rheumatism and abdominal troubles [2,4,8,16]. Dry resinous branches are used as torches.

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : D. elatum is a light demander. Natural regeneration is abundant in gaps but is sparse elsewhere. It responds well to to liberation thinning when not too intensive. Regeneration of pure stands is difficult in the absence of mother trees. [16]

Q. Propagation : Can be propagated by seed, wildlings or cuttings. Seed requires pre-treatment. Natural regeneration in gaps, also by planting [7, 16]

R. Hazards and protection : Red-listed as a threatened species by IUCN because of over-exploitation and lack of seed trees [27].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Non-Wood]:l An essential oil can be extracted by distillation from the wood. It is used for joss sticks,

4

S. Conservation : T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : at higher elevations, in dwarf form in coastal forests and on Mt. Bokor

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : India, Nepal, Burma. Sri Lanka, Indochina, Thailand, Malaysia and parts of Borneo native.

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Brown FG, 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Kuching: Government Printing Office.

de Laubenfels DJ, 1969. A revision of the Malesian and Pacific rainforest Conifers I. Podocarpaceae, in part. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 50:274-314.

Burkill IH, 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula (2nd edition). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives.

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de Laubenfels DJ,1988

5

X. References: 2)

4)

Nguyen et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp. Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

7) Lehmann, L.,Grejmans, M. and Shenman, D., 2003: Forest Trees of the Central Highlands of Xieng Khouang, Lao P.D.R. – A field guide. DANIDA-DED-NAWACOP, Vientiane-Laos. 246 pp. 8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands 16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp. 18) Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in Khmer and English) Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 97 pp. 27)

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

31)

http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/earle/po/ da_m/elatum. htm:(internet source).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dalbergia cochinchinensis Lanessan,Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre ]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dalbergia cochinchinensis Lanessan,Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre ] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Dalbergia cochinchinensis Lanessan , Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre

B. English name (s)

³

Siamese rosewood, Thailand rosewood [1]

C. Synonym

³

Dalbergia cambodiana Pierre [4]

D. Other1

³

mai ka young [1], khanhung (Laos) [2] - payoong (Thailand) [1] - trac, suá nam bo (Vietnam) [2] - shisham, sissoo, biti, eravadi, kalaruk (India) [7]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

RkjÚg

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kra-nhourng [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Fabaceae [1] / Leguminosae [6] Gunus: Dalbergia Species: Dalbergia cochinchinensis Source :[ 1,6]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Large evergreen tree, 8-30 m [5] (15-30 m [2], 25-30 m [4]) high with a DBH of up to 60 cm [5] (sometimes even 120 cm [5]), profusely branched with a spherical crown. [Bark]: The bark is light brownish yellow, longitudinally fissured, sometimes peeled off into fragments. [Leaves]: The leaves are pinnate, with 7-9 leaflets, the upper-most is the largest. Leaves 13-25 cm long, leathery, egg-shaped, 3-8 (-10) x 1.8-4 (-5) cm, leaf tip blunt or short pointed, leaf base blunt or rounded, hairless, secondary veins 7-9 pairs, venation below is a fine network. Leaf stalk 3-4 mm long. [Flowers]: Inflorescence with axillary or terminal seed head, 10-20 cm long. Flowers are white or whitish, 5-6 mm long, sparsely hairy. Flowering in May and June. [Fruits] The fruits (=pods) ripen in November and December. They are very flat, narrow, straight, 4-7.5 x 0.8-1.2 cm, contain 1 or 2 seeds, both margins parallel at the seed areas, wall thin, hairless. Seeds are kidney-shaped, 6 x 4 mm in the central part, brown or reddish. [2, 4, 5]

I. Wood properties: [Wood properties]: Rosewood is very attractive with a distinctive sap- and heartwood. Sapwood greyish, heartwood brown-red or purplish black with beautiful dark veins. Texture uniform and fine. Wood very hard, durable and heavy with a density of 1.0-1.8 g/cm³ [4] (1.09 g/cm³ [9], specific gravity r15 of 0.85 g/cm³ [7]) but easy to work. It produces a very smooth surface and cut wood releases a

shock loads. Resistant to insects and (moderately to) termites. Does not split when dry. Tendency to produce buttresses and become crooked. Becomes blackish when old. [1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: Occurs between 22°N and 10°N [1]. Native to Indo-China and adjacent countries. Grows sparsely in open and semi-deciduous forests, occasionally in pure stands. [1, 4, 6]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Altitude range: 400-500 m a.s.l. [4, 6] (100-350 m a.s.l. [1]). Prefers an uniform rainfall regime with a mean annual rainfall of 1200-1650 mm/year. Tolerates a dry season length of 3-6 months. Mean annual temperature: 20-32ºC. Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 27-39ºC. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 12-24ºC. Absolute minimum temperature: >10ºC. Shade tolerant as a sapling and becomes light demanding. Drought tolerant. [1, 4, 6]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

rose-like fragrance. High bending and crushing strengths with low stiffness and medium resistance to

2

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Central Annamites (G), Southern Annamites (g) [4] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Kampong Thom (X:566524 Y:1400818), Kampong Thom (X:535833 Y:1441034), Kampong Thom (X:551179 Y:1433097), Kampong Thom (X:540066 Y:1423043), Kampong Thom (X:533981 Y:1446062), Kampong Thom (X:530806 Y:1401082), Preah Vihear (X:514728 Y:1535416), Ratanak Kiri (X:712611 Y:1549021), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348656), Kampong Thom (X:561743 Y:1395530), Siem Reap (X:400806 Y:1543940), Kratie (X:594844 Y:1446830), Siem Reap (X:430346 Y:1472875), Kampong Thom (X:534018 Y:1458959), Siem Reap (X:400757 Y:1520273), Koh Kong (X:285400 Y:1263350), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300), Preah Vihear (X:516893 Y:1536291), Mondul Kiri (X:720556 Y:1351058). [4]

M. soil and site conditions : D. cochichinensis is able to grow on most soils with no high demand in soil conditions. It prefers deep sand, clays, or calcareous soils with a medium texture, a free soil drainage and a pH below 7 (acid soil).

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[1, 4, 6, 9]

3

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Very popular wood for the manufacture of luxury and high quality furniture, veneers for paneling, art handicrafts, musical instruments, cabinetmaking, shop, office and bank fitting, flooring, beams, woodware, doors, posts, joints, industrial and domestic woodware, tool handles, wood carvings, wood turnery, sewing machines, brake blocks, boat construction and building poles for heavy construction. The root base and root is also used for high quality art handicrafts. Other uses are fuelwood and charcoal. [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7] [Non-wood]: No information available. [Others]: It is able to fix nitrogen and thus improves soil quality. It is also commonly used as an ornamental tree. [1]

O. Cambodian wood classification : Luxury [3, 4]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Grows sparsely in open and semi-deciduous forests, occasionally in pure stands. Selfpruning tree. Stand establishment using natural regeneration or planting stock, used in agroforestry and revegetation. Classified by the Department of Forestry and Wildlife as a main tree species for timber production in Cambodia and as tree species for plantations. D. cochinchinesis has quite a slow growth rate but regenerates well by coppicing. [1, 6, 8, 9]

Q. Propagation : It is defined as "long term seedling category" by the Department of Forestry and Wildlife [8]. Seed storage orthodox, vegetative propagation by cuttings, air layering, grafting and tissue culture.Dark brown seeds are mature. The pods are collected when color turns from green to yellow to minimize insect predation. The branches are cut or shaken and the seeds collected from tarpaulin spread on the ground. After collection, the pods are dried in the sun for about three days. The dry pods remain closed and must be cut into one-seeded pieces. A seed thresher could probably extract the seeds effectively, but care should be taken not to damage the seeds. "Weight of 100 seeds is 18.5 g, and 100 g of seed can provide up to 54,000 propagules" [4]. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations: Number of seeds/kg = 40,000. Planting spacing 3 x 3 m. Net seedlings required per ha = 1,112. Rate of loss: 1,335 = 20% (planting site), 1484 = 10% in transit, 1855 = 20% at the nursery. Germination rate: 50%. Purity: 95%. Total seed requirement is 0.11 kg" [10]. [1, 4, 10]

[Pests]: Insect pests: Apoderus, Aristobia approximator, Aristobia horridula, Hypomeces squamosus, Plecoptera reflexa, Psilogramma menephron, Sphenoptera, Threnetica lacrymans. [1] [Diseases]: Fungus diseases: Maravalia pterocarpi, Phyllachora pterocarpi.

[1]

S. Conservation : IUCN Conservation category: VU A1c,d (Asia Regional Workshop, 1997). Considered vulnerable in Viet Nam and Thailand. Deforestation and exploitation are threats to this species. [6]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Kampong Thom, Preah Vihear, Ratanakiri, Pursat, Siem Reap, Kratie, Koh Kong, Stung Treng, and Mondulkiri. [4]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]:Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Southern China, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam [1, 2, 7] [Exotic]: No information available.

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R. Hazards and protection :

4

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Asia Regional Workshop, 1997. Conservation and sustainable management of trees project workshop held in Hanoi, VietNam, August 1997 [6]

Chính, N.N, Chung, C.T., Cân, V.V., Dung, N.X., Dung, N.K., Dào, N.K., Hop, T., Oanh, T.T., Quynh, N.B., Thìn, N.N., 1996. Viet Nam Forest Trees. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute. Agricultural Publishing House: Hanoi. pp.788. [6]

Phan Thuc Vat 1996. Red data book of Viet Nam. Volume 2 Plants. Science and Technics Publishing House. [6]

Vu Van Dung (Ed.) 1996. Viet Nam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi. [6]

X. References:

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

5

[2] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng: Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[3] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[4] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[5] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[6] Tree Conservation Information Service : http://www.unep-wcmc.org/trees/trade/dal_coc.htm. (Internet source).

[7] Rosewood Facts: http://www.1-unicarpenter-oy.com/Wood%20facts/Rosewood%20facts.htm. (Internet source)

[8] Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife, 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.

[9] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[10] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dalbergia oliveri]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dalbergia oliveri] ³

Dalbergia oliveri

B. English name (s)

³

No information available.

C. Synonym

³

Dalbergia bariensis Pierre, Dalbergia dongnaiensis Pierre,

A. Latin name

(s)

Dalbergia duperreana Pierre, Dalbergia mammosa Pierre [1]

D. Other1

³

kham phi leung, padong deng, cam lai, cam lai bong, cam lai mat (Laos) [1] - trac lai (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

nagnYn Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ neang nuon [2, 4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Fabaceae Genus: Dalbergia Species: Dalbergia oliveri Source :[ 1,6]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium to large deciduous tree, 15-30 m [1] (20-25 m [7], 20-35 m [2]) high with 50-60 cm [2] (40-60 cm [7], 60-90 cm [1, 6]) DBH. Open spreading crown when mature. Branches stout, slightly hairy. [Bark]: Dark grey bark, with white and yellow spots, not fissured, thick, scaly and flaking in small pieces. [Leaves]: The leaves are 15-25 (-30) cm long. Leaflets alternate, 13-17 rarely 9-11 or 19-21, eggshaped, 4-8 x 1.2-3 cm, lateral and terminal leaflets similar in shape and size, apex blunt or acuminate, often pointed a the top, base rounded. Clear vein network, secondary veins 9-12 pairs. Young leaves pale, pink with silky hairs, mature leaves dark grey green, smooth. [Flowers]: Inflorescenses are axillary or terminal spreading, 10-45 cm long. Inflorescense stalk 8-10 cm long, slightly hairy. Flowers purple in bud, pale purple or white, in branched clusters at end of twigs, 10-12 mm long. [Fruits] The fruits ( = pods) are elliptical, 9-14 x 2.5-4.5 cm, flat, bulging over the seeds, fruit stalk 11.5 cm long. Seeds usually 1, sometimes 2 or 3, bean-shaped, 12.5 x 9 mm, in the central part, flattened, brown or reddish. [1, 2, 6]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is hard and heavy, with a wood density of 1.07-1.15 g/cm³ [2]. It produces attractive veins, is easy to polish and is resistant to termites. "Several commercial varieties streaked by yellow" [5]. [2, 5]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Trees occur individually or in groups of 5–10 trees, and usually in evergreen tropical forests or semideciduous forests that are dominated by Lagerstroemia and dipterocarps. [2]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Grows at altitudes up to 1,100 m [5] (1,200 m. [1], <900 m [2]). Trees can tolerate some level of shade at an early age, but they generally prefer light. [1, 2, 5]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Northern Cardamons (B), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Lower Mekong Floodplain (E), Central Annamites (G) [2] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]:

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

can be distinguished by the wood color: Rose-yellow, brown veined, red with black veins and purple

2

Preah Vihear (X:491881 Y:1560352), Kratie (X:575520 Y:1453205), Kampong Thom (X:570229 Y:1406639), Preah Vihear (X:498262 Y:1514060), Kratie (X:606741 Y:1423572), Kratie (X:631083 Y:1419339), Preah Vihear (X:494558 Y:1517764), Kratie (X:586368 Y:1412724), Kratie (X:594306 Y:1376211), Ratanak Kiri (X:710881 Y:1547976), Preah Vihear (X:511900 Y:1531250), Preah Vihear (X:519800 Y:1541250), Preah Vihear (X:511900 Y:1534350), Preah Vihear (X:515564 Y:1536686), Ratanak Kiri (X:704001 Y:1504648), Ratanak Kiri (X:708916 Y:1550449), Kampong Thom (X:561882 Y:1396560), Kratie (X:595445 Y:1447118), Stung Treng (X:636350 Y:1522763), Siem Reap (X:396300 Y:1539500), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650), Preah Vihear (X:494650 Y:1516781), Ratanak Kiri (X:721623 Y:1515900), Siem Reap (X:400757 Y:1520273) [2]

M. soil and site conditions : Occurs generally in moist areas, along streams and rivers, and on hill sides. Grows well on reddish brown and yellowish-brown ferralitic soil. Avoids very degraded areas. [2, 6, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood resembling Brazilian rosewood is widely used for making high quality furniture, luxury cabinets, art and handicrafts, decorations etc. [2, 5] Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Non-wood]: No information available.

3

[Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : Luxury [2, 3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Occurs usually sparsly or in groups of 5-10 individuals in primary- and secondary dipterocarp forest, mixed deciduous forest, tropical evergreen or semi-deciduous forest along streams. [1, 7] [Management]: Trees generally grow slowly in both natural and man-made forests. [2]

Q. Propagation : Individuals of this species often produce many seeds, but natural regeneration is often poor due to low germination rates or disadvantageous weather and site conditions. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: Number of seeds per kg: 5,000. Planting spacing: 3 x 3 m. Net seedlings required per ha: 1,112. Rate of loss: 1,335 = 20% (planting site), 1,484 = 10% in transit, 1,855 = 20% at the nursery. Germination rate: 50%. Purity: 95%. Total seed requirement: 0.79 kg" [8]. [2, 8]

R. Hazards and protection : No information available.

S. Conservation : "Due to its economic value, Dalbergia oliveri is facing serious depletion by illegal cutting. The number of remaining individual trees is very low, and these are disappearing on a local level. In many areas of its natural range, mature and large sized trees are rarely to be found. Efforts to regenerate the species on a large scale have been few and limited. The species is facing the possibility of extinction if no effective protection measures are taken. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined Dalbergia oliveri as a priority species, and one that is in need of immediate conservation interventions and appropriate protection. This species is protected by Cambodian Forestry Law No.35" [2].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Kratie, Preah Vihear, Kampong Thom, Ratanakiri, Stung Treng, Pursat and Siem Reap.

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar,Thailand, Vietnam. [1, 2] [Introduced]: No information available.

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : No information available.

X. References: [1] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng: Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA [2] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM) [3] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2]

4

[4] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer) [5] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [6] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. [7] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. [8] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations

5

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf.] ³

Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. [4].

B. English name (s)

³

flame tree, peacock flower, fire tree [4]

C. Synonym

³

basionym: Poinciana regia Bojer ex Hook. [8,20].

D. Other1

³

seinban (Burma); fang han nhoung, in si (Laos); hang nok

A. Latin name

(s)

yung farang (Thailand); phuong, diêp bông do, diêp tây (Vietnam) [6,8], flamboyant, poinciana (French) [20]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

ek¶ak)araMg Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ k´ngaôk barang [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta

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Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae

1

Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Caesalpinioideae Gunus: Delonix Species: Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. [4]

Source :[4 ; 11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A small to moderate-sized semi-deciduous tree with short trunk, often root-like buttresses and a wide, spreading, umbrella-shaped crown, reaching 15 m in diameter [6,8]. A tree 10-15 (max.18) m, up to 60 cm diameter; trunk large, buttressed and angled towards the base [26]. Crown umbrella-shaped, spreading with long, nearly horizontal branches forming a perimeter wider than the trees height. Twigs stout, greenish, finely hairy when young, becoming brown. Roots shallow [26]. [Bark]: Grey, smooth, stipules pinnately 4 or 5 lobed; with vertical lines of brown spots [6,8]. Bark smooth, greyish-brown, sometimes slightly cracked and with many dots (lenticels); inner bark light brown [26]. [Leaves]: The compound leaves are alternate, 20-60 cm long and divided into 15-25 pairs of pinnae, each of which has about 14-30 pairs of small, oblong leavelets, 8-10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide [6]. Leaves bipinnate, main rhachis 50-60 cm long; pinnae opposite, 9-24 pairs, up to 10 cm long. Leaflets 10-40 pairs per pinna, opposite, subsessile or sessile, narrowly elliptic, 5-15 by 2-5 mm, base slightly oblique, apex rounded, mucronate, both surfaces finely puberulous, glabrescent [8]. Leaves biparipinnate, alternate, light green, feathery, 20-60 cm long, 10-25 pairs of pinnae, 5-12 cm long, each bearing 12-40 pairs of small, oblong-obtuse leaflets that are about 0.5-2.0 cm long and 0.3 cm wide, petiole stout. The numerous leaflets are stalkless, rounded at the base and apex, entire, thin, very minutely hairy on both sides, green on the upper surface. At the base of the leaf stalk there are two compressed stipules that have long, narrow, comb-like teeth [26]. [Flowers]: The numerous showy red flowers with yellow margins grow in dense clusters sometimes

Flowers 5-10. Pedicels 5-8 cm long. Hypanthium shortly bell-shaped. Sepals 5, narrowly elliptic, 4-7 by 2.0-2.5 mm, apex acuminate, reddish inside. Petals 5, unequal, total length 3-7 cm long, blade orbicular, 3-4 cm wide, narrowed into an up to 3 cm long claw, one yellowish-white and scarlet, the others only scarlet. Stamens 10, equal in length; filaments up to 4 cm long, red with white base; anthers elliptic c. 4 mm long. Ovary slightly velutinous; style filiform, glabrous, c. 2.5 cm long; stigma indistinct [8]. Corymbs 15-30 cm long, borne laterally near the end of the twig, each with loosely arranged, slightly fragrant flowers. Flowers 5-13 cm across, with 5 equal petals, on slender stalks, 5.07.6 cm long. Petals 5.0-6.5 cm long, 2-3 cm wide, orbicular, broadly spoon-shaped, rounded but broader than long, slightly wavy-margined or crisp, tapering into claws about 2.5 cm long, widely extended and bending backwards before falling. Petals 4, orange-red, almost scarlet, 1 longer and narrower than the others, whitish inside with red spots and streaks; stalk very long, slender and hairy. Sepals 5, thick, green outside and reddish with yellow border within, reflexed when the flowers open, pointed, finely hairy, about 2.5 cm long. Stamens 5 with 10 red filaments; pistil has a hairy 1-celled ovary about 1.3 cm long and slender style about 3 cm long [26]. [Fruit]: The fruit pods are stout, woody, reddish, brown or black, flat and up to 40 cm long [6]. Pods narrowly elliptic, flat, slightly curved, pendulous, 30-80 by 3.5-7.0 cm, woody-valved, blackish, beaked. Seeds 20-40, elliptic, compressed, 25 by 8 mm. Fruit green and flaccid when young turning to dark-brown, hard woody pods, 30-75 cm long, 3.8 cm thick, 5.0-7.6 cm broad, ending in a short

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almost entirely covering the crown [6]. Inflorescences axillary racemes, 10-15 cm long, glabrous.

2

beak when mature, with many horizontally partitioned seed chambers inside, indehiscent, finallly splitting into 2 parts. The conspicuous pods hang down and remain attached most of the year even when the trees are leafless. Seeds 30-45, hard, greyish, glossy, to 2 cm long, oblong and shaped very much like date seeds, transversely mottled with a bony testa. They are arranged at right angles to the length of the pod. The generic name "Delonix", is derived from the Greek "delos" (visible), and onyx (claw), in an allusion to the conspicuously clawed petals. The specific name "regia" is derived from the Latin word "regis" (royal, regal, magnificent). Most of its common names are derived from its large, flame-red flowers [26]. Flowering April-July, fruiting May to August [8].

I. Wood properties: The sapwood is light yellow, and the heartwood is yellowish to light brown. It is soft, heavy, specific gravity 800kg/m³ (440kg/m³ [12], coarse grained, weak, brittle, takes good polish and is rather resistant to moisture and insects although very susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites [20,26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Endemic to Madagascar. An ornamental tree widely cultivated in the tropics in Africa, South America and Asia, including Burma, Thailand, Indochina and the Philippines under the name flamboyant or flame tree [6,8]. The tree is native to Madagascar and has been widely planted for the last 150 years or more as a garden and avenue tree in both dry and moist regions of tropical India as far as Jammu in the northwest. It is also one of the most extensively planted ornamental trees in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. In Sri Lanka, the tree is grown as an ornamental; it has been tried in Cyprus, but it could not stand the winter cold. Trials carried out in Ghana failed, but in addition Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

to India, it has been grown successfully in Burma, Jamaica, Nigeria, Borneo, South Africa, Egypt,

3

Tanzania and Uganda. It is also been planted in southern Florida including Florida Keys, southern California, Bermuda, Mexico, Brazil and throughout the West Indies [26].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Cultivated around villages, buildings, parks, along roads and alleys. It is a quick growing, light sensitive species that will need about 5 years to bloom [9]. Trees can grow at higher altitudes than recommended, but flowering becomes erratic. The tree demands light and grows weakly and sparsely under shade. It grows in areas with both high and scanty rainfall. D. regia has a superficial root system and competes successfully with the neighbouring shrubs and flowering plants, rendering bare the ground under its canopy. It should therefore be planted away from other plants in the gardens. Trees are deciduous only where the dry season is long and pronounced [26]. The altitudinal range is from 0 to 2000 m a.s.l., annual rainfall should reach from 700mm/m² to 1800mm/m² with a uniform summer rain distribution. The dry season may last between 1 and 6 months. Mean annual temperature range is from 14 to 26ºC., but must not drop below 6ºC [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Likes well-drained fertile soil for optimum growth and flowering [9]. D. regia has been planted up to an altitude of about 2000 m on alluvium, shale and limestone soils and on a wide range of other soil types. However, optimum growth is obtained on light, well-drained soils. It tolerates slight salinity [12]. Soil texture should be light, with free drainage, soil reaction close to neutral, suitable soil types are given as alluvials, limestone and saline soils [12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Delonix regia produces a very durable construction timber but large dimension timber is rarely available [13]. Wood and pods are suitable as fuelwood [17,26]. [Non-Wood]: D.regia is predominantly planted as ornamental and shade tree [6,8]. Flowers are reputed to produce bee forage [20,26]. The tree yields a thick mucilage of water-soluble gum in yellowish or reddish-brown warty tears; the seeds contain gum that may find use in textile and food industries [20,26].A dye and a gum can be produced from the bark [13]. The seeds edible [8]. Bark has medicinal properties, a leaf decoction presumably has anti-rheumatic effects [4,26]. The hard, elongated seeds are occasionally used as beads [26].

soluble in water, forming a thick opalescent mucilage. It contains a large quantity of calcium oxalate [12]. The seeds can be made into necklaces; they contain a gum which can be used in the textile and food industries. The pods are edible and have good potential as a dietary protein source for humans and livestock. The leaves (with 39.5% protein) provide nutritious fodder and browse for livestock. In the Virgin Islands, the annual dry matter yield of forage from D. regia has been estimated as 13.45 t/ha and protein as 1.45 t/ha [12]. The aqueous extracts of D. regia contain allelopathic compounds, including phenolic acids, alkaloids and flavonoids; these can be used as natural herbicides and pesticides to increase the productivity of agricultural crops. An extract of D. regia leaves has been found to disrupt insect growth and development [12]. It can be planted as a multipurpose tree on eroded sites for erosion control, and for soil rehabilitation and improvement through atmospheric nitrogen fixation. In alley cropping studies in the uplands of Sierra Leone, D. regia trees were very effective in conserving soil moisture and reducing soil temperature (Karim, 1987). D. regia is planted in tea plantations to provide shade. It is a useful tree in

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

D. regia bark produces large amounts of a granular, yellowish- or reddish-brown gum. The gum is

4

agroforestry, for soil improvement, soil conservation, erosion control, amenity and ornamental planting [12].

O. Cambodian wood classification : Not included [18].

P. Silviculture and management : D. regia can be planted in areas where rainfall is less than the recommended amount, as long as irrigation is practised. It is fast growing, and pollarding is a suitable practice. Careful pruning will achieve good crown form. The trees have shallow root systems and the wood is weak; they are therefore liable to being uprooted during strong storms and broken by strong winds. After the leaves are shed, the trees are less attractive, with their conspicuous pods remaining on the bare branches and with prominent tunnels and nests of termites that commonly attack this species. Another objectionable feature is the surface root system, which sometimes breaks sidewalks and walls. Because of these undesirable characteristics, some authorities classify flamboyant as a tree that should not be planted [26].

Q. Propagation : D. regia is a light-demander and under shady conditions it grows slowly. It is almost evergreen and is only briefly deciduous during the dry season. It has an extensive superficial root system, which renders it vulnerable to windthrow during storms. Because of its spreading root system, other plants are killed through competition, thus rendering the surrounding ground bare [12]. It is naturally Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

regenerated by seed. D. regia seed is able to germinate at a wide range of soil pH values (4.9-10.6),

5

but take a long time to germinate and may lie buried in the soil for 2-3 years without germinating. It grows quickly, reaching a height of up to 8 m in three years. It tolerates severe pruning and salt winds. It is a nitrogen-fixing species and the roots have mycorrhizas [12]. D. regia is usually grown from seed. There are 1600-3700 seeds per kilogram, with about 10.5% moisture content. The seed can be stored in a clean dry store for up to 4-5 years without losing viability. Seed pre-treatment is necessary to hasten and improve germination and several options exist. The seed is treated with sulfuric acid for about three hours, soaked in hot water for 24 hours or mechanically scarified before sowing. Soaking in hot water at 90°C for 10 seconds, followed by soaking for 24 hours under controlled conditions of 28.2°C and 83% relative humidity, gave 80% germination. Scarification and soaking in 400 ppm gibberellic acid for 48 hours also improved germination [12]. Seeds are sown in nursery beds, pots or polythene bags without shade. Plants ready for field planting are obtained in 4 months. These may be allowed to grow for up to 10 months for the production of stump plants, with 5 cm shoot and 25 cm root portions. Plants raised from seed may have flowers of different colours. Therefore, vegetative propagation by stem cuttings can be advisable, especially for propagating trees with scarlet flowers. Under ordinary conditions, rooting of cuttings is poor, but this can be enhanced by application of growth substances, such as IBA. Rooting of cuttings can also be

increased by mist propagation techniques in a chamber. D. regia has been successfully micropropagated from a number of different explants on suitable media [12]. After seeds are sown in unshaded nursery beds, they germinate within 5-10 days, with a germination rate of up to 90%; subsequent growth in the nursery is quite fast. Alternatively, the seeds can be directly sown in polythene bags, 4-5 seeds/bag. Seedlings watered and weeded regularly are planted out in the rainy season, with total time required in the nursery being 3-5 months. Keeping the plants for more than 9 months is not desirable, as they become too tall to handle, but seedlings can be transplanted even when 20-25 cm high. Natural regeneration is common. Young plants are not fire resistant and should be protected from grazing [20,26]. D. regia is easily propagated from seeds that have a hard, woody testa and take a long time to germinate. They may lie for 2-3 years in the soil without germinating and usually take 12-349 days to germinate. To break this dormancy, pretreatment is practised; a small portion of the seed coat is clipped, or seeds are boiled in hot water, then allowed to soak for 24 hours. Trees can also be propagated from branch cuttings [20].

R. Hazards and protection : Beetles and larvae of Poecilips sierralemensis bore into the pods to release the seeds. Trees are susceptible to attack by shoot borers and are occasionally defoliated by a caterpillar or an insect; leaves may be eliminated completely. D. regia is attacked by Ganoderma lucidum root rot, especially in the high rainfall areas [17]. D. regia plants are susceptible to attack from termites and shoot borers . Pteroma plagiophleps is a serious pest of avenue plantings of this species. A severe outbreak of the

Pericyma cruegeri have been observed causing severe defoliation of trees in Nagaland, India . Acanthopsyche reimeri is a bagworm of tropical Africa. Its larvae are polyphagous, feeding on the leaves of various dicotyledonous trees, principally open-grown trees and ornamentals. It has caused severe defoliation of D. regia in Kenya. Anoplocnemis curvipes is a bowlegged bug and is widely distributed in tropical Africa. Both the adults and nymphs of this species are polyphagous, feeding on the sap of many agricultural and garden plants. In Malawi it has been recorded on D. regia, and is a pest of some importance as heavily infested shoots become disfigured and increment is considerably reduced; it has even been known to kill 1-year-old plants. Leptostylus praemorsus has been recorded in Antigua, Bermuda, Dominica and St. Lucia. A longhorn beetle, known principally as a pest of citrus, it also infests other trees, both dicotyledons including D. regia, and conifers. Orthezia insignis is also very widely distributed in the tropics, subtropics and warmer parts of temperate zones. In Malawi, it is frequently injurious to D. regia and other trees, principally ornamentals, and often kills seedlings or even fully-grown trees if heavily infested.

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bostrichid Sinoxylon anale was observed on D. regia in Israel in 1984. Similarly, larvae of the noctuid

6

Oxyrhachis latipes is a tree-hopper, which feeds on the sap of D. regia in Malawi. Records of infestation are few and it is apparently unimportant. Injury from Schedorhinotermes lamanianus has been recorded on D. regia. The beetle and larvae of Poecilips sierraleonensis can bore into the pods of D. regia and damage the seed [12]. A Ganoderma sp. has been observed attacking seedlings of D. regia in Australia. Root rot is caused by Fusarium oxysporum in the northern Guinea region of Nigeria. Root and butt-rot disease is characterized by affected parts slowly enlarging and development of a thick, dark brown mycelial sheath around the bases of infected trees. Wilting and discoloration of the leaves and development of brown mycelial mats on roots and basal stems, followed by death of D. regia plants, has been reported. A fungus, Pleiochaeta setosa, has been noticed on D. regia in India. This attacks the cotyledons of germinating seedlings and the leaves of young seedlings, causing shrivelling, leaf death and leaf shedding. The seedlings however, do not die. The well known root rot fungus Armillaria mellea has a worldwide distribution and extensive host range, including D. regia. Thick, white mycelia form a felty sheet between bark layers and also between the dead bark and underlying wood. Sphaerostilbe repens, known as stinking root disease, affects D. regia. Infection is by waterborne spores through root contact. It produces dark brown or reddish rhizomorphs beneath the root bark. The inner surface of the root is bleached and a strong odour is produced due to the combined activity

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of fungus and bacteria [12].

7

S. Conservation : Not a threatened species [17].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : In most provincial towns, in villages

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Introduced and naturalised in all towns and villages in countries with tropical climate [8]. Native to Madagascar, Zambia; introduced to Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cyprus, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Mexico, Niger, Nigeria, Puerto Rico, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, United States of America [26].

V. Miscellaneous4 :

W. Further readings5 : Anon. 1986: The useful plants of India. Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India Bein E. 1996: Useful trees and shrubs in Eritrea. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Nairobi, Kenya. Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993: Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). Birnie A. 1997: What tree is that? A beginner's guide to 40 trees in Kenya. Jacaranda Designs Ltd. Gbadegesin RA, 1993: Root rot of Delonix regia caused by Fusarium oxysporum in the northern Guinea zone of Nigeria. Discovery and Innovation, 5(3):255-259; 18 ref. Grant G, More LJ, McKenzie NH, Dorward PM, Buchan WC, Telek L, Pusztai A, 1995: Nutritional and haemaglutination properties of several tropical seeds. Journal of Agricultural Science, 124(3):437-445; 32 ref. Hood IA, Ramsden M, Allen P, 1996: Taxonomic delimitation and pathogenicity to seedlings of Delonix regia and Albizia lebbeck of a species related to Ganoderma lucidum on broadleaf trees in Queensland. Australasian Plant Pathology, 25(2):86-98; 27 ref. Hutchinson J, 1964: The genera of the flowering plants. Oxford, UK: The Clarendon Press.

Millat-E-Mustafa M, 1989: Effect of hot water treatment on the germination of seeds of Albizia lebbeck and Delonix regia.. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 18(1-2):63-64; 4 ref.

Pandey J, Agrawal M, 1994: Evaluation of air pollution phytotoxicity in a seasonally dry tropical urban environment using three woody perennials. New Phytologist, 126(1):53-61; 56 ref.

Saxena SC, Yadav RS, 1986: A preliminary laboratory evaluation of an extract of leaves of Delonix regia Raf. as a disruptor of insect growth and development. Tropical Pest Management, 32(1):58-59; 10 ref.

Streets RJ. 1962: Exotic forest trees of the British Commonwealth. Claredon Press, Oxford. Vogt K. 1995: A field guide to the identification, propagation and uses of common trees and shrubs of dryland Sudan. SOS Sahel International (UK).

X. References:

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Luna RK. 1996: Plantation trees. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun, India.

8

4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands, 9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

9

18) Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in Khmer and English) Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 97 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dimocarpus longan Lour.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dimocarpus longan Lour.] ³

Dimocarpus longan Lour.

B. English name (s)

³

longan [1], dragon's eye, longan tree, lungan [5]

C. Synonym

³

[for ssp. longan var. longan]: Dimocarpus longan Lour.

A. Latin name

(s)

(1790),

Euphoria

longana

Lamk.

(1792)

nom.

illeg.,

Nephelium longana Cambess. (1829) [1, 2], Euphoria longan Steud. [4], Nephelium long-yan Bl. [5] [for ssp. longan var. longepetiolulatus Leenh.]: Euphoria morigera Gagnep. (1950) nom. inval. [1] [for ssp. longan var. obtusus (Pierre) Leenh.]: Euphoria scandens Winit & Kerr. [1] [for ssp. malesianus Leenh. var. malesianus]: Nephelium malaiense Griff. (1854), Euphoria cinerea Radlk. (1878) nom. illeg., Euphoria malaiensis Radlk. (1879) nom. illeg., Euphoria gracilis Radlk. (1913) nom. illeg. [1]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[for ssp. malesianus Leenh. var. echinatus Leenh.]: Euphoria

1

nephelioides Radlk. (1914) nom. illeg. [1]

D. Other1

³

longanier, oeil de dragon (France) [1] - lengkeng, buku, ihau, medaru, kyet mouk (Indonesia) [1, 4] - lengkeng, mata kucing, isau, sau, kakus (Malaysia) [1] - kyet mouk (Myanmar) [1] - lam nhai, nam nhai (Laos) [1] - lamyai pa, lamyai khruer, lamyai tao, lahm-yai (Thailand) [1, 4] nh[ax]n, nam:nhan (Vietnam) [1, 4] - mamoncillo chino (Spain) [5]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

emon Source: [5]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ mien [1]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Sapindaceae Genus: Dimocarpus Species: Dimocarpus longan Lour. Sub-species: Dimocarpus longan longan Lour. / Dimocarpous longan malesianus Leenh.

Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : 20 m [3]) and with a round very dense crown that attains a width of 14 m [4]. Unmanaged trees can become up to 40 m in height [1, 4] (-30 m [2, 8], 20-40 m [11]), but may exceptionally become a scandent shrub. The trunk, sometimes buttressed, is up to 75-100 cm in diameter [4] (76.2 cm [5], 100 cm [1], 20-40 cm [11]). Branches are long, spreading, slightly drooping, with 5 faint grooves, sometimes warty lenticellate and heavily foliaged. The roots grow 2-4 m deep [3, 4] to the water table. [Bark]: The bark is first smooth, later rough and flaking. [Leaves]: Leaves are alternate, paripinnate, with 4-10 [4, 5] opposite leaflets (2-6 leaflets [1], 6-8 leaflets [11]), elliptic, egg-shaped to oblong or spear-shaped and a blunt tip. The leaflets attain a size of 10-20 x 3.5-5 cm [5] (3-45 x 1.5-20 cm, 1-5 times longer than wide [1], 9-18 x 3.2-6 cm [8], 7-20 x 2.5 x 5 cm [11]) and are leathery, wavy, glossy-green on the upper surface, minutely hairy and greyish-green beneath. Young leaves are wine-colored and showy. Each leaf has 14-17 pairs [8] of side veins (10-14 pairs [11]) that are not joined. The leafstalk is 1-20 cm long [1, 4] (7-12 cm [11]), the leafletstalk 0.5-35 mm [4] (2-10 mm [8]). [Flowers]: The inflorescences (=terminal panicles) are 8-40 cm long [1] and densely covered with fine hair. The flowerheads contain (1-)3-5 flowers [4], male and female mingled, with 1-4 mm long [4] flowerstalks and 1.5-5 mm long bracts (=reduced leaves) [4]. Flowers consist of a 2-5 mm x 1-3 mm

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[General]: A small to medium-sized, evergreen tree, in cultivation 9-14 m in height [4] (9-12 m [5], 10-

2

[1] calyx lobe and 5 [1] (5-6 [5]) inner flower leaves (=petals), yellow brown to pale-yellow, 1.5-6 mm x 0.6-2 mm in size [1], densely woolly to hairless and larger than those of the litchi. The male flowers contain (6-)8(-10) stamens [1] with 1-6 mm long filaments. "Male and female phases of flowering overlap 4-6 weeks depending on cultivars. Pollination, by insects such as ants, flies and honey bees (Apis cerana, Apis florea and Apis dorsata) is most effective between 8.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.m. In one study fruit set per panicle improved greatly with bloom rating for the tree, leading to a sharp progression in yield per tree (and an obvious risk of biennial bearing). The period from bloom to harvest is 5-7 months, depending on cultivar and climate. In Thailand it flowers just before or after the temperature rise at the end of the cold, dry season. Most fruit is harvested in August and September" [5]. [Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) occurs in clusters and is broad-ellipsoid to globular with 1-3 cm [1] in diameter (1.25-2.5 cm [5]). Its rind is thin, brittle, yellow-brown to light reddish-brown and more or less roughly pebbled. The flesh (=aril) is moist and sticky, whitish, translucent, with a sweet smell and taste, "but not as sweet as lychee and with less 'bouquet'" [5]. The seed is round, jet-black or blackish-brown, shining, with a circular white spot at the base, giving it the aspect of an eye. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The heartwood of ssp. longan is red, hard, not fissured and takes a fine polish, while the wood of ssp. malesianus is fairly hard and of light brown to yellow color.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1, 6, 11]

3

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: The optimal latitudinal distribution of D. longan ssp. longan ranges from 15°N to 15°S with 20°N to 20°S as absolute limits [3]. Subspecies malesianus is confined to 10°N and 10°S [1]. Some authors limit the area of origin to the mountain chain from Myanmar through southern China; others extend it to south-west India and Sri Lanka, including the lowlands. The crop is mainly grown in South China, Taiwan and North Thailand with small acreages elsewhere in Indo-China (Cambodia, Vietnam) as well as Queensland (Australia) and Florida (United States) and scattered trees at higher elevations in South-East Asia. Subspecies longan grows mainly in the understorey of primary forests, sometimes secondary forests from lowlands to highlands, where frequent fires are absent. "In Thailand it occurs mainly in the river basins" [10]. Under cultivation, it does especially well on high ground near ponds and is more seldom grown under orchard conditions than is the litchi. Subspecies malesianus occurs all over Indo-China and Malesia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines) with the greatest variation found in Borneo mainly in the substage or understorey in primary or sometimes secondary forests. [1, 2, 4, 8, 10]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Subspecies longan occurs from lowland to highland areas and can be grown at elevations up to 1,500 m a.s.l. [1] in SW-India, up to 900 m [1] in Giava and up to 1,300 m [1] in Bengala. Subspecies malesianus thrives in the humid tropical lowlands near sea level around 150-450 m a.s.l. [5]. "Longan is a subtropical tree that grows well in the tropics but requires a prominent change of seasons for satisfactory flowering" [1]. The following climate zones are suitable for cultivation: tropical wet & dry (Aw), tropical wet (Ar), subtropical humid (Cf) and subtropical dry winter (Cw) [3]. D. longan ssp. longan requires a rainfall of 1,300-2,000 mm/year [3] (1,500-2,000 mm [1]) for optimal growth and an absolute rainfall range from 800 to 3,000 mm [3]. The rainfall for ssp. malesianus ranges from 2,500 mm to more than 4,000 mm per year [1] with a relative humidity of 65-95% [1]. It needs an adequate supply of water and can even stand brief flooding, but not prolonged drought. The temperature range for growth is 7-36°C [4] with the optimum between 18-30°C [4] [15°C [5]] for ssp. longan and 25-30°C [1] for ssp. malesianus. Subspecies longan "needs chilling temperatures of about 7-12°C, or a 2-3 months period with temperatures about 15-22°C and a short dry period to stimulate flowering. From fruit set and onwards night temperatures should not be above 20-25°C" [3]. It cannot stand heavy frosts. Young trees may be damaged by -0.5º to -1ºC [4] and are killed at just a few degrees lower. Larger trees show leaf injury at -2º to -3ºC [4], small branch injury at -3º to -4ºC [4], large branch and trunk show damage symptoms at -4.5°C [4] and sometimes fail to recover. Mature trees will only tolerate -3 to -5°C [3] for few hours. Regarding the photoperiod it is not sensitive, tolerating short days (<12 hours [3]), neutral days (12-14 hours [3]) and long days (>14 hours [3]). Young trees need some shade, whereas older trees thrive in full sunlight.

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Longan thrives best on deep, well drained rich sandy loam and nearly as well on sand rich in organic material. It also grows to a large size and bears heavily in oolitic limestone. Poor drainage is tolerated very well (saturated >50% of the year [3]). The optimal pH for ssp. longan ranges between 5.5 and 6 [3] with an absolute range of 5-8 [3] "In organic muck soils, blooming and fruiting are deficient, probably because shoot growth continues for too long. In northern Thailand orchards are often situated on the lighter soils along former river courses, a ribbon of trees winding between the sawahs" [1]. Additional soil properties: "Optimal soil depth: deep (>150 cm). Absolute soil depth: shallow (20-50 cm). Optimal soil fertility: high. Absolute soil fertility: moderate. Soil salinity: low (<4 dS/m)" [3]. “In Sarawak, ssp. malesianus grows on alluvial soil, often on river banks. In other areas the trees grow on a wider range of soil types. A pH range of 4.5-6.5 is common in this region" [1]. [1, 3, 4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

4

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: D. longan is not often cut for timber. The wood, however, can be used for posts, construction and agricultural implements. If the timber has a high quality, it can be used for wood carving, moulding, domestic joinery and furniture. Its value for fuel is limited. [6, 11, 12] [Non-wood]: Fruits of this species are mainly eaten fresh. Some sources mention that the fruit is improved by cooking. "There are substantial canning industries for longan in Thailand, China and Taiwan" [1]. Large fruits are used, preferably those with small seeds. Fruit can be canned in its own juice with little or no sugar, due to the high level of soluble solids. "In China, the majority are canned in syrup or dried. The canned fruits were regularly shipped from Shanghai to the United States in the past. Today, they are exported from Hong Kong and Taiwan" [5]. Canned longans retain their individual flavor better than rambutan or lychee. Longans can also be preserved dry, either intact or after removal of the pericarp. For drying, the fruits are first heated to shrink the flesh and facilitate peeling of the rind. Then the seeds are removed and the flesh dried over a slow fire. The dried product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to prepare a refreshing drink. A liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol. The seeds, because of their saponin content, are used like soapberries (Sapindus saponaria L.) for shampooing the hair. Seeds and fruit flesh of longan have several medicinal uses: "The flesh is administered as a stomachic, febrifuge and vermifuge, and is regarded as an antidote for poison. A decoction of the dried flesh is taken as a tonic and treatment for insomnia and neurasthenic neurosis. In both North and South Vietnam, the 'eye' of the longan seed is pressed against snakebites in the belief that it will absorb the venom" [5]. The Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

seeds prevent heavy sweating and the pulverized kernel, which contains saponin, tannin and fat,

5

serves as a styptic. The leaves, containing quercetin and quercitrin, and flowers are sold in Chinese herb markets. Dried flowers are also exported to Malaysia for medicinal purposes. The seeds and the bark are also burnt for fuel "and are part of the payment of the Chinese women who attend to the drying operation" [6]. [1, 3, 5, 6] [Others]: "In eastern Thailand ssp. longan var. obtusus is grown as an ornamental climber" [1]. In Bengal and elsewhere the Longan tree is cultivated as an ornamental and shade tree and is also considered to be a useful species for agroforestry. [1, 3, 5]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [9]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Subspecies longan is a fast growing light demander which can be mainly found in the understorey of primary forests, sometimes secondary forests from lowlands to highlands, where frequent fires are absent. "In Thailand it occurs mainly in the river basins" [10]. Under cultivation, it

thrives exceptionally well on high ground near ponds and is more seldom grown under orchard conditions than is the litchi. Subspecies malesianus occurs all over Indo-China and Malesia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines) with the greatest variation found in Borneo mainly in the understorey of primary or sometimes secondary forests. [Establishment]: Tree spacing ranges from 6 m x 6 m to 12 m x 12 m [1]; where the latter spacing may also be a result of a subsequent thinning of the stand. For orchards the trees may be spaced 10 m x 10 m [1], in a square or hexagonal pattern. In general, there is a trend towards closer spacing. "Regular bearing would help to limit tree size to fit spacings of 6 m x 8 m to 7 m x 10 m" [1]. "In China, if the longan is raised on the lowlands it is always put on the edges of raised beds. On high ground, the trees are placed in pre-enriched holes on the surface" [5]. [Management]: The trees begin to bear fruits 4-5 years [3] after sowing. The economic life-span may reach about 25 years [3]. Young longan trees are pruned to limit the number of main branches. A tree can be converted to a preferred cultivar by cutting it drastically back and veneer-grafting the new shoots. "In bearing trees harvesting is a form of pruning, since the entire panicle is cut. Soon after harvest this should be followed by cutting out some of the subtending twigs. Cutting out these twigs completely simplifies the canopy structure and admits more light to the interior of the tree; it also removes twigs that are least likely to fruit next year, since they have fruited this year. If this is not done side shoots emerge below the cuts of the harvested panicles. These shoots make the canopy more dense and come too late to initiate inflorescences for the next crop. According to an old report growers in Fukien Province in China practise flower thinning in 'on' years. Since prolific bloom in longan appears to be associated with heavy fruit set, the risk of over-thinning is small and as many as

[5]). Side shoots emerge below the cuts sufficiently early in the season to mature in time to initiate flowers for the next crop. Thus alternate bearing is suppressed by thinning. Current pruning practice is mainly to remove suckers in the interior of the tree as well as branches that have lost vitality and panicles that remain after harvest; the skirt is maintained at a height of at least 1 m. These pruning practices do not restrict tree size" [1]. The longan needs an adequate supply of water and can even stand brief flooding, but not prolonged drought. Irrigation is necessary in dry periods. Moisture is especially needed from flowering until shortly before harvest and may be preserved by mulching. "Once the trees become dormant at the end of the growing season, rainfall may trigger a new flush of shoot growth, upsetting floral differentiation and resulting in failure of flowering. There is no specific information on fertilizer requirements. Chinese work indicates that high yields are correlated with leaf nutrient levels as follows: N higher than 1.70%, P 0.12-0.20%, Mg 0.20-0.30%. Levels of 0.60-0.80% and 1.50-2.50% are recommended for K and Ca, respectively, but no relation to yield has been found. For 'mata kucing' and related types husbandry is largely limited to harvesting and cutting back of the fruiting twigs" [1]. The period from bloom to harvest is 5-7 months [5], depending on cultivar and climate. [Fruit harvesting]: "Longan fruits, including the fruits of ssp. malesianus, are non-climacteric and have to be harvested when ripe. Maturity is determined by fruit shape, skin color and taste. Immature fruits

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

50% of the panicles may be removed (3/4 = 75% of the flower spikes in the cluster may be removed

6

are tasteless. The mature longan fruit has a dark, smooth skin, the inside of which is netted and tastes sweet. Longan trees should be picked twice at an interval of 7-10 days; 'mata kucing' fruit can all be picked in a single harvest. The whole panicle is cut with a knife or scissors. Panicles should not be dropped. They are sorted and bunched" [1]. [Yield]: In Thailand the average longan yield ranged from 0.99-1.65 t/ha in 1981 to 1987 [1] (1-6 t/ha [3]). These average yields are extremely low when compared with well-kept orchards, which should produce up to 12 t/ha per year [1]. For 10-15-year-old trees yields ranging from 60-190 kg/tree [1] (120 kg/tree [3]) have been obtained. In East Java the very best trees produce 150-300 kg [1] in a good year (200-300 kg [3]). In China, full-grown trees given sufficient room–at least 12 m apart–may yield 180-225 kg [5] in good years. Crops in Florida from trees 6 m tall and broad, have varied from light (22.5-45 kg [1]) to medium (68-113 kg [1]) and heavy (135-225 kg [1]). Rarely such trees may produce 272-317 kg [5]. The variation occurs largely due to irregular bearing, often one good year followed by 1 or 2 poor years [5]. [Handling after harvest]: "Thai growers traditionally pack longan fruits with stalk intact in 35 cm x 50 cm round woven bamboo baskets containing 21-22 kg and lined with longan leaves. Fruit for export, often detached from the panicles, may be packed in corrugated boxes or plastic baskets. Since longan fruit have high sugar content, they have a shelf life of a few days only at ambient temperature (25-31°C). Longan fruit subjected to hydrocooling or forced air cooling can be stored at 5°C for 40-45 days and at 10°C for 20 days with a relative humidity of 85-90%. For long-term storage fruits can be fumigated with SO2" [1].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 12]

7

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: The seed storage is recalcitrant. Seeds "lose viability at 18% moisture content. There is 70% survival after 7 weeks storage with anesthetic substances such as moist storage at 8-10°C with 100% relative humidity and with 80% nitrous oxide + 20% oxygen, but no viability when water is used; and 67% germination after 250 days moist storage in moist (20 % moisture content) perlite + 4% chlorthalonil, at 15°C" [5]. Seed viability can also be prolonged for some time by treatment with a fungicide and keeping the moisture level of the seed above 30% [1]. [Seed Propagation]: Most longan trees are grown from seed. After drying in the shade for 4 days [5], they should be planted without delay, but no more than 2 cm deep [5], otherwise they may send up more than one sprout. Germination takes place within 7-10 days [3, 5]. The seedlings are transplanted to shaded nursery rows the following spring and set in the field 2-3 years [5] later during winter dormancy. Seedling growth is slow and the juvenile phase lasts about 7 years [3]. [Vegetative Propagation]: In Thailand longans are propagated through air layering, in China through approach grafting using seedlings of the same cultivar as rootstocks applying the modified Forkert method. However, slow and uneven budbreak remains a problem. "In the rainy season air layers root in 2-2.5 months; they are nursed in the shade for 6-12 months after separation. Trees obtained by air layering are more susceptible to wind than grafted trees; therefore either they are supported by

permanent bamboo props, by soil mounded around the trunk, or rooted seedlings are planted close to the young tree and inarched to improve stability" [1]. "In Kwangtung Province (China), when vegetative propagation is undertaken, it is mostly by means of inarching, nearly always onto 'Wu Yuan' trees 3-5 years old and 5 to 6 ft (1.5-1.8 m) high. The union is made no less than 4 ft (1.2 m) from the ground because it is most convenient. Grafting is uncommon and when it is done, it is a sandwich graft on longan rootstock, 3 or 4 grafts being made successively, one onto the beheaded top of the preceding one, in the belief that it makes the graft wind-resistant and that it induces better size and quality in the fruit. Conventional modes of grafting have not been successful in Florida, but whip-grafting has given 80% success in Taiwan. Air-layering is frequently done in Fukien Province (China) and was found a feasible means of distributing the 'Kohala' from Hawaii. Air-layers bear in 2 to 3 years after planting. A tree can be converted to a preferred cultivar by cutting it drastically back and veneer-grafting the new shoots" [6]. Stem cuttings are rarely used. [1, 5, 6]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Numerous pests are found on longan. Of particular importance is the longan stink bug (Tessaratoma javanica) which can ruin bloom in a year with light flowering. There is also a flowereating caterpillar. Chemical control interferes with pollination and the interests of bee keepers; the stink bug can be controlled by a hymenopterous parasitoid reared on silk-worm eggs. The fruit is attacked by piercing moths, borer caterpillars and fruit flies. Thai growers (and also Cambodian growers [13]) sometimes bag the panicles to protect them. The fruit - and that of 'mata kucing' c.s. - is also eaten by bats; (In Thailand and Cambodia, fruit panicles are sometimes protected with a woven

electric wires in the orchard" [1]. Another source ([5]) describes longan as a tree which is relatively free of pests. [Diseases]: "The only disease of importance in longan in Thailand is rosette shoot or witches' broom, caused by a mycoplasm. Affected trees show abnormal growth and poor flowering. No cure is known and affected trees should be grubbed out and burned. Powdery mildew infects inflorescences and young fruit of 'mata kucing', causing the same kind of damage as in rambutan. Thread blight occurs on branches and leaves of 'mata kucing'" [1]. [Others]: "At times, there may be signs of mineral deficiency which can be readily corrected by supplying minor elements in the fertilization program" [5].

S. Conservation : Due to an extensive cultivation, this species is not considered to be threatened. [12]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

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bamboo basket [13]). A draconian control method is electrocution by a high screen of thin, parallel

8

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: S-China, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka. [2, 3, 5] [Introduced]: Australia (Queensland), Bermuda, Cambodia, China, Cuba, Indonesia (ssp. malesianus only), Laos, Mauritius, Malaysia (ssp. malesianus only), Puerto Rico, Philippines (ssp. malesianus only), Reunion, Taiwan, Thailand, United States of America, Vietnam [2, 4, 5]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Production and international trade]: "Longan production in Thailand was 20,100 t in 1986/1987 and 58,660 t the following year - showing the prominent tendency to biennial bearing - from an area estimated to be 23,500 ha. The exports of fresh, canned and dried fruit, mainly to Singapore, Hong Kong and the EC, were 10600, 2950 and 0.4 t respectively in 1986. Elsewhere in South-East Asia only East Java produces an appreciable quantity of longan. The other fruits, such as 'mata kucing', are found in their season in some local markets only" [1]. [Fruit properties]: "Food value per 100 g of edible portion: Calories: 61 (fresh), 286 (dried). Moisture: 82.4 g (fresh), 17.6 g (dried) (458 kJ/100 g [1]). Protein: 1.0 g (fresh), 4.9 g (dried). Fat: 0.1 g (fresh), 0.4 g (dried). Carbohydrates: 15.8 g (fresh), 74.0 g (dried) (25.2 g [1]). Fiber: 0.4 g (fresh), 2.0 g (dried). Ash: 0.7 g (fresh) (0.5 g [1]), 3.1 g (dried). Calcium: 10 mg (2 mg [1]) (fresh), 45 mg (dried). Phosphorus: 42 mg (fresh) (6 mg [1]), 196 mg (dried). Iron: 1.2 mg (fresh) (0.3 mg [1]), 5.4 mg (dried).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Thiamine: 0.04 mg (dried). Ascorbic Acid: 6 mg (fresh), 28 mg (dried)" [6]. "Vitamin A 28 IU, vitamin

9

B1 0.04 mg, vitamin B2 0.07 mg, niacin 0.6 mg and vitamin C 8 mg. The composition of 'mata kucing' fruit is not very different, but carbohydrates - and energy values - are much lower, whereas much higher figures are given for mineral content" [1]. [Subspecies and cultivars]: "The two subspecies and five varieties of D. longan, listed above, are distinguished mainly by differences in the leaflets. Within ssp. malesianus, var. malesianus shows the greatest variation in Borneo. The fruits are globular to slightly oblong and smooth to warty. In Peninsular Malaysia, the most common form of this taxon is the one with globose smooth fruits which turn brown when ripe. This is the true 'mata kucing' and has usually been identified as Euphoria malaiensis. It has a very thin arilloid and is hardly worth eating. This form also exists in Borneo and Sumatra. The more superior forms are found in Sarawak, all with densely thick warty fruits and thicker arilloids. These forms can be roughly grouped into three types based on the fruit characteristics: the 'isau' with fruits which are globular and remain green when ripe, the 'sau' with fruits which are slightly oblong and also remain green when ripe, and the 'kakus' with globular fruits which turn brown when ripe. The leaves, flowers and tree forms also differ. The 'kakus' is more widespread in Sarawak, while the 'isau' and 'sau' are mainly confined to the river banks of the Rajang river and to the Bareo valley. Var. echinatus differs from var. malesianus in that the fruits have rather long spines resembling the rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.). This variety is found in Sabah where the 'kakus' also exists. Three edible longan types are distinguished in Thailand, which presumably all belong to ssp. longan.

The first one is a large forest tree with small fruits and a very thin aril, possibly of interest for breeding purposes. The second one is the common longan ('lamyai kraduk'), growing in the northern part of the country as an erect tree, producing small fruits with large seeds and is recommended as a rootstock for commercial cultivars. The third type is formed by the commercial cultivars ('lamyai kraloke') which produce large fruits and small seeds. Important longan cultivars in Thailand are: 'Daw', 'Chompoo', 'Haew', 'Biew Kiew', 'Dang', 'Baidum', 'Luang' and 'Talub Nak'. In China 'Fu Yan', 'Wu Long Ling' (both in Fujian), 'Wu Yuan' and 'Shi Xia' (both in Guangdong Province) are leading cultivars, in Taiwan 'Yong Tao Ye' and 'Chiau On Diao'" [1]. [Genetic resources]: "Seeds are too short-lived for germplasm collection. Thailand has large tree collections of longan in Chiang Mai and Lamphun. The Thai cultivars differ in shoot, flower and fruit characters from the Chinese cultivars, but on the whole, genetic diversity appears to be narrow. There are several cultivar collections in Australia, the largest being in Kamerunga Horticultural Research Station near Cairns, Queensland. The University of Agriculture Malaysia with its branch campus at Bintulu, Sarawak, is now the largest collector of germplasm of D. longan ssp. malesianus. The great diversity in Sarawak offers a great opportunity to select superior material. Explorations in remote areas have been regularly made to identify trees with good quality fruit - thick flesh, fruit in consolidated panicles - and to collect budwood" [1]. [Breeding]: "Seedling progeny are extremely variable and small fruit size appears to be a dominant characteristic. Therefore through the centuries improved cultivars have resulted merely from selection, in particular on large fruit size, high edible portion, crisp flesh, good flavor, and high sugar content. In so doing heavy and regular yields appear to have been sacrificed in comparison with the common

pure white aril for the canned product, must also receive more attention" [1]. [Prospects]: "Small fruit size and biennial bearing is the main constraint for expansion of the crop. The suggestions made above to ensure more regular bearing are based on piecemeal evidence, but they are simple to test. It is probably easier to attain good and stable yields of longan than of lychee; since these fruits substitute for one another this considerably enhances the prospects for longan. If trees bore regularly, growth would be moderated and it would be easier to prune to keep trees a manageable size. Small trees, coupled with closer spacing and regular yields would allow production to be intensified. The superior races of the spp. malesianus, in particular the var. malesianus in Sarawak and other parts of Borneo, may offer an attractive alternative to longan for the humid tropical lowlands" [1]. [Fruit storage]: "At room temperature, longans remain in good condition for several days. Because of the firmer rind, the fruit is less perishable than the lychee. Preliminary tests in Florida indicate that the fruit can be frozen and will not break down as quickly as the lychee when thawed" [6].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

longan in Thailand. Now marketing characteristics, such as early or late harvest, a long shelf life and a

10

W. Further readings5 : Anonymous, 1987. Lychees and longan. Union Offset, Bangkok. pp. 44-71. (Thai). [1]

Holtum, R.E., 1953. Gardening in the lowlands of Malaya. The mata kucing. The Straits Times Press, Singapore. pp. 294-295. [1]

Knight Jr., R.J., Manis, W.E., Kosel, G.W. & White, C.A., 1968. Evaluation of longan and lychee introductions. Proceedings Florida State Horticultural Society 84: 314-317. [1]

Leenhouts, P.W., 1971. A revision of Dimocarpus (Sapindaceae). Blumea 19: 113-131. [1]

Liu, X., Zheng, J., Pan, D. & Xie, H., 1986. An investigation on the leaf nutritional diagnosis criteria of longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.). Journal of the Fujian Agricultural College 15 (3): 237-247.

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[1]

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Menzel, C.M., Watson, B.J. & Simpson, D.R., 1989. Longans - a place in Queensland's horticulture? Queensland Agricultural Journal 113(5): 251-265. [1]

Morton J. (1987) Fruits of warm climates; Longan. [4] Tongdee, S.S., 1977. Study on the characteristics of longans during storage. Kasikorn 50(2): 95-97. (Thai). [1] Verheij, E.W.M. & Koopmans, A., 1984. Flowering and fruiting of longan (Euphoria longana Lam.) in East Java in 1983. Agrivita 7(1): 14-19. [1]

van Welzen, P.C., Lamb, A. & Wong, W.W.W., 1988. Edible Sapindaceae in Sabah. Nature Malaysiana 13: 10-25. [1] Wong, K.C., Ibrahim Yusof, Pearce, K.G. & Alau Tayan, D., 1988. Isau - A potential tropical longan (Dimocarpus longan) of Sarawak. Proceedings of the Third National Biology Symposium, Subang Jaya (in print). [1]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [2] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe (Internet source)

[3] ECOCROP: http://ecocrop.fao.org (Internet source) [4] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

[5] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=179 76 (Internet source)

[7] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[8] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[9] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[10] Rehm, S.; Espig, G., 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics.

[11] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. Hanoi

[12] Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees. A Worldwide Encyclopedic Guide.

[13] Petri, M (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6] Morton, J. 1987: Longan. p. 259–262. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G. Don]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G. Don] ³

Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G. Don [10]

B. English name (s)

³

hairy-leafed apitong [10], Indonesian gurjun [9]

C. Synonym

³

Dipterocarpus gonopterus Turcz., Dipterocarpus lemeslei

A. Latin name

(s)

Vesque, Dipterocarpus incanus Roxb., Dipterocarpus unesbi Vesque [4], Dipterocarpus philippinensis Foxw. [7]

D. Other1

³

keruing yang, keruing (Trade name) [9, 10] - yang-na (Thailand) [7] - dàu rái, d[aaf]u r[as]i , dau nuoc, dzau con rai trang, dau con rai (Vietnam) [5, 11, 12, 16] - nha:ng, nha:ng kha:w, nhang, nhang khao, nhang mouk (Laos) [9, 10] hairy-leafed apitong, apinau, ayamban (Philippines) [10] keruing,

kruen

(France)

[9]

-

dulia

garjan,

garjan

(Bangladesh) [9] - gurjin (India) [9] - kanyin, kanyin-byu

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Myanmar) [9]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

eQITalTwk Source: [15]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhe tiel tuk, chhe tiel thom [3], chhë: ti:ël bângku:ëy, chhë: ti:ël ba:y [10], chhoeuteal tan, chur tuk, gnang [9], chheutealteuk [15]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae

Gunus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f. Species: Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G. Don

Source :[ 9]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Dipterocarpus alatus is a medium-sized to very large deciduous tree attaining a height of 40 m or more [10, 11] (-45 m [16], 25-40 m [3], 45-53 m [4]). The bole is tall, straight, cylindrical and branchless for up to 20 m [10] (20-30 m [4]) with a maximum DBH of 150 cm [10, 11, 16] (200 cm [12], a girth of 3-4 m [4]). The crown is umbrella-shaped. Young twigs are covered with short tangled hairs. Buds are spear-shaped and covered by yellow hair. [Bark]: The outer bark is thin, whitish grey and smooth in young trees, later thick when mature with deep and wide cracks. The epidermis peels off in large patches. The inner bark is yellowish brown and resinous. [Leaves]: The leaves are narrowly egg-shaped, egg-shaped or elliptical-oblong, 9-25 x 3.5-15 cm [11] (10-20 x 6-11 cm [4], 16-20 x 8-10 cm [12], 14-25 x 6-15 cm [16]) with a pale green lower surface. The leaf-base is wedge shaped to rounded; the leaf-tip is shortly pointed or tapering to a long point. Secondary veins are in pairs of 11-18(-20) [11] (15 pairs [4], 11-20 pairs [16], sparsely hairy above, densely hairy beneath. The leafstalk is 2.5-4.5 cm long [11] (2.5 - 3.5 cm [4]), with greyish-yellow constant temperature and humidity prevent further production; leaf fall occurs in mid-November (at a time of low temperature and humidity and short day length)" [11]. [Flower]: The inflorescence is axillary and on the top of shoots and twigs. Flowers are large, radially symmetrical, bisexual and scented. The 5 up to 8 mm broad outer flower-leaves (=sepals) form a rounded hairless tube around the ovary (=female organ) which is more or less globe-shaped. Two of the sepals are long, 14 cm x 3 cm [10] (12-15 x 3-5 cm [12]) oblong to spate-shaped, more or less distinctly 3-veined. Three short ones are 12 mm x 14 mm [10] in size but sometimes all five are short. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are large, oblong to narrowly oblong, strongly contorted and hairy outside, cream-white with a prominent pink, red or purple stripe down the center. The fruit has many stamens (=male organs) with flattened filaments. The ovary (=female organ) is densely hairy, the style is 1 cm long [4], stout, ribbed and hairy in the lower part. Flowering season is November-December [12, 16] (Thailand: early December [11]). [Fruits]: Fruiting season is April-May [12, 16] (Thailand: mid-February [11]). Fruiting occurs almost every year, and there seems to be a large supply of seeds. The fruit (=nut) is 1.8-2.4 cm long [4] 2-3 cm in diameter [12], with five 8 mm broad [16] ridges, green when young, turning brownish red when ripe, and thinly covered with star shaped hairs. It is surrounded by a hairless tube formed by the 5 outer flower leaves, 2 larger ones up to 14 cm x 3 cm [11] (12 x 2.5 cm [4], 10-14 x 2-3 cm [16]) and 3

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

haired stipules. "Leaf and bud production in juvenile trees occurs from January to June, after which

2

shorter ones up to 1.2 x 1.4 cm [11] (1-1.4 x 1-1.3 cm [16]) which form the wings of the fruit. The wings are red when young. [3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is medium hard and heavy of bright color and a with distinctive sap- and heartwood. The sapwood is nearly white or greyish pink, the heartwood is reddish pink or greyish brown and fairly straight grained. Annual rings are not conspicuous. Simple vessels with a large diameter are scattered with a small number of vessels per mm² [12]. The wood fiber is of tracheid form 1.1-1.4 mm long [12] with a thick wall. It has a density of 0.62-0.905 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [10] (0.78 g/cm³ of dry wood [12], specific gravity of 0.574 [4], 0.72-0.8 g/cm³ at 12% mc [4]). Other wood properties: "Shrinkage percentage (green to oven dry): Radial 3.0%, tangential 7.5% and volumetric 10.8%. Modulus of rupture (kg/cm²): 661.5 (green), 1020.7 (air dry). Modulus of elasticity (kg/cm²): 103,900 (green), 151,900 (air dry). Maximum crushing stress (kg/cm² ): 318.4 (green), 552.1 (air dry)" [4]. "Volume shrinkage coefficient: 0.51. Grain saturation point: 26%. Pressure strength (along the grain): 586 kg/cm². Collision bending strength: 0.6." [12]. [4, 10, 12]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 22°N to 2°N [9] (15°N to 5°N [6]). D. alatus is a native species of Indochina, Thailand, East India (Andaman Islands), the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines (Luzon). It has adapted to a wide range of forest types of the lowlands and hills and grows frequently in moist

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests, dense semi-deciduous forests, moist deciduous forests and

3

dry deciduous forests. It grows abundantly in small pure stands along streams, on river banks and in riparian valleys. In tropical evergreen or monsoon forests it is usually mixed with Dalbergia cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Pterocarpus macrocarpus and Sindora siamensis. In hill forests it is mainly found in association with Swintonia floribunda and Artocarpus chaplasha while it is mixed with Shorea cochinchinensis and Irvingia spp. in the transitional belts between evergreen and deciduous forests which contain a quite dense undergrowth. In dipterocarp forests D. alatus forms an ecological group of Dipteroarpaceae with Hopea odorata and Anisoptera costata. Sometimes these species form pure stands in which D. alatus crowns make up a separate ecologically dominant or emergent storey. "Within the perimeter of the park of Angkor (Siem Reap Province, Cambodia), Dipterocarpus alatus, Lagerstroemia spp. and Tretrameles nudiflora are very numerous probably as a result of shifting cultivation in ancient times" [20]. Generally it is often planted in temples and along roadsides. [2, 3, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 20]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : D. alatus is a tree of hills and lowlands and is confined to an altitude of 0-500 m a.s.l [2, 11, 17] (30500 m [9], 0-450 m [6], 300-900 m [3], 0-800 m [5], 200-500(-800) m [16]). A tropical monsoon climate (tropical wet & dry (Aw) [6]) with an average humidity of 75-85% [12], a mean annual rainfall of 1,100-

2,200 mm/yr [9] (1,500-2,200 mm [12], 3,500-4,500 mm (optimal) [6], 3,000-5,200 mm (absolute) [6]) and a maximum dry season length of 3-6 months [9] (4-6 months [12]) is suited. "The habit of the Philippine populations is more seasonal than usual for those in Indo-China" [11]. The optimal mean annual temperature for growth is 22-32ºC [6] (20-30ºC [9], 25-27ºC [12]) with a mean minimum temperature of the coldest month 12-18ºC [9] and an absolute minimum temperature of 10ºC [6, 9]. A mean maximum temperature of 30-40ºC [9] (36ºC [6]) in the hottest month is tolerated. According to some sources D. alatus is a shade bearer [4, 9]; others describe it as light demanding tree when mature but shade tolerant when young [5, 16]. It has adapted to a photoperiod of less than 12 hours/day [6] (short days). Flooding is tolerated, however a susceptibility to fire and wind has been reported. [2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : This tree prefers well drained, fertile, light loamy to medium loamy or sandy soils along rivers and on moist, flat land. Water logging is tolerated but only for a short period. Just like Hopea odorata and Anisoptera costata, D. alatus grows on grey soils on shale, is a rapid colonizer on old sandy alluvium and ferallit on mica schist or granite. Soils which are relatively poor in humus are also suited. It grows well on slightly acid soils with a pH of 5-6 [12] and on neutral soils. Additional soil properties: "Optimal

Absolute soil fertility: moderate. Soil salinity: low (<4 dS/m). Soil drainage: well (dry spells)" [6]. [5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 20]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: D. alatus timber is used and traded as 'keruing' when not exploited only for its oily resin and is one of the most important timber species of Southern- and Southeast Asia, especially South India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. In Thailand it is the most important timber species next to teak. The valuable timber can be used for a variety of purposes such as general- and indoor construction, veneer, plywood, flooring, wall paneling, cabinetwork, pallets, short fiber pulp, posts, building poles, beams, chemical processing equipment, wood based materials, railway sleepers if treated, fuelwood and boat building (framework for boats). [3, 9, 10, 11, 22] [Non-wood]: "The white oleoresin or wood oil which is obtained from the sapwood is known as 'minyak keruing', 'damar minyak', 'minyak lagan' or 'balau'. The essential oil obtained from the oleoresin is the well known 'gurjun balsam'. This is not a balsam in the strict sense, as it does not contain any cinnamic or benzoic acid" [17]. In Thailand it is considered to be the best oleoresin of any native species. It is used as a fixative in perfumery, particularly soap perfumes. It is a cheaper substitute for

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

soil depth: deep (>150 cm). Absolute soil depth: medium (50-150 cm). Optimal soil fertility: high.

4

'patchouli oil' obtained from Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. The oleoresin is still traditionally used for illumination, for bamboo furniture, to caulk boats, to make baskets watertight and to treat timber which is exposed to the weather. In traditional medicine it is used as a disinfectant, laxative, diuretic, mild stimulant and in analgesic liniments. It can be mixed with bee wax and used as an antiseptic in bandages of ulcerated wounds. The bark of the young tree provided with 2-4 leaves is believed to have medicinal virtues against rheumatism, diseases of the liver and to stimulate the appetite of cattle. In modern societies the oil is used for (zinc-based) paint, printing ink industries, varnish for walls and furniture and lacquer. It can even be used as a fuel in diesel engines. [3, 9, 11, 12, 13, 17] [Others]: D. alatus also has also a high potential in agroforestry. "In Thailand the taungya reforestation method has been practiced primarily in order to rehabilitate wasteland with this tree. The organic matter and NPK content of soils under the tree canopy have been shown to be higher than in soils further away from the tree" [11]. It is also commonly intercropped with fruit trees. However studies in Vietnam showed that intercropping with coffee (Coffea spp.) is not advisable, as people pruned the young trees severely to promote the growth of coffee [12]. [9, 11, 12]

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class [1].

P. Silviculture and management : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[General]: Dipterocarpus alatus has adapted to a wide range of forest types of the lowlands and hills

5

and grows frequently in moist evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests, dense semi-deciduous forests, moist deciduous forests and dry deciduous forests. It grows abundantly in small pure stands along streams, on river banks and in riparian valleys. In tropical evergreen or monsoon forests it is usually mixed with Dalbergia cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Pterocarpus macrocarpus and Sindora siamensis. In hill forests it is mainly found in association with Swintonia floribunda and Artocarpus chaplasha while it is mixed with Shorea cochinchinensis and Irvingia spp. in the transitional belts between evergreen and deciduous forests which contain quite dense undergrowth. In dipterocarp forests D. alatus forms an ecological group of Dipteroarpaceae with Hopea odorata and Anisoptera costata. Sometimes these species form pure stands in which D. alatus crowns make up a separate ecologicaly dominant or emergent storey. According to some sources D. alatus is a shade bearer [4, 9]; others describe it as light demanding tree when mature but shade tolerant when young [5, 16]. It has the ability to self prune. [4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 20] [Natural Regeneration]: In natural forests Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can survive in the forest for years under heavy shade. Natural regeneration is good, especially along rivers or on moist flat land. "In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many

species regenerate well only in primary forest" [17]. Natural regeneration of D. alatus has also been observed in abandoned agricultural fields and protected forest land after logging. [4, 11, 16, 17] [Establishment]: Seedlings for planting should be 12-14 months old [12] with a mean height of 60-80 cm [12]. It is advisable to plant D. alatus on grey soil on old alluvium with pure planting system on large areas or in bands 15-30 m wide [12]. The topography should be flat with bushes or grasses. In Southern Vietnam, planting has been done right after the first rains of the rain season (June-July) [12]. It can be planted as pure plantation under the crowns of shade trees, such as Indigofera teysmanii, Cassia siamensis, Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria with an initial density of 1,000 trees/ha (3 x 3 m) [12] or 600 trees/ha [12] (Cambodia: 625 trees/ha [19]) (4 x 4 m) [12]. Direct sowing under these trees is also possible if enough shade is provided. Seedlings develop best in association with ectomycorrhizae of the genus Russula. [4, 9, 12, 17] [Management]: "Tending is carried out 7 successive years. 1st to 3rd year: (2x = before and after rainy season) Weeding, breaking hard pan, liana cutting. 4th to 5th year: Shoot thinning, opening of canopy, density regulation. In the dry season there must be a fire control. In year 7-10, thinning has to be carried out leaving a final density of about 280-300 trees/ha (4 x 8 or 6 x 6 m)" [12]. [Resin harvesting]: "The technique for harvesting of the oleoresin from Dipterocarpus is similar throughout SE-Asia and has not evolved much in the last 100 years. Tapping involves cutting a hole in the stem with its base sloping down towards the center of the stem. This process is known as D. alatus trees are only tapped when their diameter is over 50 cm, as smaller trees are not sufficiently productive. The hole is usually triangular and may extend halfway through the stem. It is made on the side of the trunk where the canopy has the largest concentration of branches and leaves. Boxing is confined to the lower 2-3 m of the stem and a tree with a diameter of 75 cm usually has 2-3 holes. Generally, the oleoresin starts to flow within an hour and collects inside the hole. It is removed once every 7-8 days. After collection, the remaining hardened coat of oleoresin is set on fire to prevent clogging and to stimulate further flow. The burning takes 20 seconds to 2 minutes, exceptionally up to 20 minutes. After the fire has been extinguished the burnt resin is scraped off the inner wall of the hole and the oleoresin is left to flow again. When a hole becomes unproductive it is abandoned. The use of ethrel instead of firing to stimulate oleoresin exudation has been investigated, but did not prove to be much more efficient or less damaging to the tree. Tapping is done throughout the year, and although the oleoresin flow is more abundant in the rainy season, the availability of labor then limits harvesting frequency. Laotian tappers claim that D. alatus trees are productive for 50-80 years. Tappers exert user rights over individual trees and these rights are inherited. Gregariously growing trees usually have a single owner. Once the tapping of a tree is abandoned, the tapper loses his rights over that tree. In Malaysia a refined technique has been developed which gives a somewhat better product with a higher essential oil content. The 'bark chipping' method involves removing the outer

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

'boxing'. Occasionally a scaffold is constructed to be able to reach above the buttresses of large trees.

bark after which a strip of inner bark 2.5 wide is removed to expose the wood. This streak is about 1

6

m long and directed upward at an angle of 30º to the horizontal. An apron and gutter system is fixed just below the streak and a cup is installed at its bottom. Sulphuric acid is sprayed on the exposed wood. In 4 experimental trees a concentration of 10% proved best, giving a daily yield of 78-320 g. A polythene sheet is fixed to cover the apron and gutter system and prevent rain and dirt from contaminating the exuding oleoresin. Without the application of a stimulant, oleoresin production is negligible. It is doubtful whether this technique will replace the traditional tapping technique, as it involves much extra work for little extra gain" [17]. [Handling after harvest]: "In Peninsular Malaysia the harvested oleoresin of Dipterocarpus is filtered by means of gunny sacks and flour sacks, which are firmly fixed to wooden frames. The essential oil fraction drips through, while the more viscous fraction settles inside the sacks. During this process, some of the essential oil evaporates and probably not all essential oil is separated from the resinous fraction. Distillation with water gives a higher essential oil yield" [17]. [Yield]: The annual production of D. alatus trees in Laos is estimated at 22.5-31 l/tree [11, 17].

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: D. alatus is a species with annual flowering and fruiting but produces seed very irregularly, with a periodicity of 1-3 years or 1-6 years [9] depending on the location. Fruit collection season is from March to April [12] when the fruits turn from green to dark green. Fruits can be colleted right from the tree or after falling to the ground. However, they have to be colleted in time; otherwise they will be rotten or destroyed by insects. After collection the fruit wings have to be removed and they have to be immersed in warm water in about 5-6 h [12]. "The seed storage Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

behavior is intermediate, lowest safe moisture content is 17%, no seeds survive further drying out to

7

8% moisture content. At 12% moisture content, only 36% germination occurred after 939 days hermetic storage at -18ºC compared to 80% viability before storage" [11]. [Seed Propagation]: There are 130-500 seeds/kg [11]. Seeds loose their germination ability quickly (after 10-15 days germination rate can be reduced to 50% [12]), thus they must be washed clean and sown right after collection. They are incubated by straw to sprout and then sown in PE pots (15-20 cm [12]) with pot mixture of which 80-85% [12] is nursery soil and 15-20% decomposed farm yard manure [12]. In nursery beds germination starts in about 10 days [4] (4-7 days at 25ºC [11]) and continues for a month and the best germination success obtained is 27% [4]. The germination rate is higher in shaded beds. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: 300 seeds/kg. Planting spacing: 4 x 4 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 625. Rate of loss: 750 (20% in planting site), 834 (10% in transit), 1,043 (20% at the nursery). Germination rate: 50%. Purity: 90%. Total seed requirement: 7.74 kg" [19]. [Vegetative Propagation]: The irregular production of seeds, and their recalcitrant nature, makes it difficult to propagate the species sexually. In the 1980s, trees were easily propagated by aided natural regeneration and artificial regeneration was not practiced at all [4]. Nowadays, however, vegetative propagation is done by cuttings, air layering and tissue culture. Cuttings taken from coppice shoots produced after hedging rooted successfully with 44.5% rooting [11] (>75% of rooted cuttings [12])

indicating the potential for mass production of rooted cuttings from hedge orchards for reforestation purposes. [4, 9, 11, 12, 19]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Known insect pests are Coryphothrips trochiceps and Gynaikothrips siamensis [9] [Diseases]: The cerambycid, Celosterna pollinosa sulphurea (Synonym: Cerosterna pollinosa sulphurea) attacks the tree in Thailand. Celosterna scabrator (Synonym: Cerosterna scabrator) also damages D. alatus. Other fungus diseases include Croton lucidum, Croton sublyratus, Fomes albomarginatus and Ganoderma applanatum. [9, 11] [Others]: A susceptibility to fire and wind has been reported. [6]

S. Conservation : Deforestation and exploitation are a general threat to this species. Thus is has been classified as endangered (EN A1cd+2cd, B1+2c [2, 7, 12, 18]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Vietnam, the ecosystems of this species are almost completely destroyed there. Before 1975 there was the intention to replant 6,000 ha of D. alatus and D. cochichinensis but due to the war the intention failed. After 1975 thousands of ha of D. alatus have been planted by state forest enterprises, as industrial plantation, forest improvement, forest enrichment, agroforestry etc. Many models were considered successful on large scale such as 300-1,200 ha of plantation" [12]. In Thailand it found throughout its potential distribution range, with a number of individual trees, but slightly declining. The estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) amounts to >10,000 threatened by logging and >1,000 threatened by fire. [2, 7, 8, 12, 18, 21]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World distribution] [Native]: Cambodia, Laos, E-India (Andaman Islands), N-Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines (Luzon), Thailand, Vietnam [11, 13]

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Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees. "Due to seriously abused exploitation in

8

[Introduced]:Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka [4, 5, 10, 13]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Taxonomy]: "In 1993 it was discovered that D. alatus and D. philippinensis are conspecific (=of the same species)" [10]. [Hybrids]: "Dipterocarpus alatus x D. costatus was recently reported from Khong Chiam Ubon Ratchathani, where the hybrid D. costatus x D. obtusifolius is also known. It occurs in association with Pinus merkusii in the transition zone between dry deciduous dipterocarp forest dominated by D. obtusifolius and D. intricatus and dry evergreen dipterocarp forest dominated by D. costatus and D. alatus. The leaf form and fruit characters including sizes and indumentum are intermediate. The hybrid Dipterocarpus alatus x D. chartaceus has also been reported occurring by roadsides between Songkhla and Ranote (Thailand), about 100-200 m behind the beach. The hairs on young twigs and leaves with narrow keels on calyx tube are the same as in D. alatus, but the 3 smaller calyx lobes are minute and hairless as in D. chartaceus" [2]. [Resin Production]: "Direct distillation at 255ºC of the oleoresin of D. alatus yields 70% reddish essential oil and 30% resin. In the 1920s southern Vietnam produced about 1,000 t of oleoresin annually, all obtained from D. alatus" [17]. [Timber trade]: "The price of round wood in 2003 in the world was about US$ 1,500-2,000/m³" [12].

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[Toxicology]: "D. alatus dust causes boils" [11].

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W. Further readings5 : Ankarfjard R and Kegl M. 1998. Tapping oleoresin from Dipterocarpus alatus (Dipterocarpaceae) in a Lao village. Economic Botany. 52(1): 7-14. [11]

Aniwat C, 1989. Common forest tree diseases in Thailand. Thailand Journal of Forestry, 8:216-226. [10]

Hans JW, Valeriano SB, 1982. Aspects of Management and Silviculture of Philippine Dipterocarp Forests. Philippine-German Rain Forest Development Project, Schriftenreihe der GTZ No. 132, 17-34. [10]

Linington IM, 1991. In vitro propagation of Dipterocarpus alatus and Dipterocarpus intricatus.. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 27(1):81-88; 21 ref. [10]

Namura J, 1986. Forest management in Bangladesh. Tropical Forestry, No. 7:29-35.

[10]

Ngampongsai C, Aksornkoae S, Tamanontha P, Sahunalu P, 1967. The Influence of Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. on Soil Properties. Research note. Bangkok, Thailand: Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University. [10]

RAPA, 1985. Dipterocarps of South Asia. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA) Monograph 4/85. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO. [10]

Sabhasri S, Boonnitee A, 1967. Growth and Development of Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. in Natural Forest. Bangkok, Thailand: Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University. [10]

Smitinand T, Santisuk T, 1981. Dipterocarpaceae of Thailand with special reference to silvicultural ecology. Malaysian Forester, 44(2/3):377-385; 9 ref. [10]

[10]

Soonhuae P, Limpiyaprapant S, 1996. Rooting cutting of Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. and Shorea roxburghii Roxb. in nonmist propagators. Information note, ASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre Project, Muak-lek, Saraburi, Thailand. [10]

Watanabe H, Sahunalu P and Khemnark C. 1988. Combinations of trees and crops in the taungya method as applied in Thailand. Agroforestry Systems. 6(2): 169-177. [11]

X. References: [1] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

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Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ, 1993. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees: major commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees: major commercial timbers., 610 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. PROSEA NUGI 835.]; 817 ref.

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[2] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Dipterocarpus.htm (Internet source)

[3] Dy Phon, 2000, Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia

[4] Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph 1985/4. Regional office for Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.

[5] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[6] ECOCROP: http://ecocrop.fao.org (Internet source)

[7] Forest Herbarium (BKF) National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Thailand – http://www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)

[8] Sontara, S. (PNSA); Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

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[10] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CDROM).

[11] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=10 (Internet source)

[12] JICA, 2003: Use of indigenous tree species in reforestation in Vietnam.

[13] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe

[14] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[15] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[16] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[17] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.

[18] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[19] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom Penh

[20] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

[21] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[22] WWF Tropical Timbers - http://assets.panda.org/downloads/tropical_wood_images.pdf (Internet source)

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.] ³

Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

Dipterocarpus insula[1], Dipterocarpus insularis

A. Latin name

(s)

Hance (1876) [6], Dipterocarpus artocarpifolius Pierre ex Lanessan (1889) [6], Dipterocarpus parvifolius Heim (1903) [6]

D. Other1

³

keruing bukit (Malaysia) [6] - kanyin in, kanyin po, kanyin-ywet-the (Myanmar) [6] - nha:ng dè:ng (Laos) [6] yang-pai, yang-khao, yang-kabueang (Thailand) [6] - d[aaf]u m[is]t, d[aaf]u c[as]t (Vietnam) [6]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

eQITalbgÁÜy

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhe tiel nieng daeng, chhe tiel angkuey, nieng daeng kraham [1], chheuteal bangkuoy[7], cheuteal [8]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae[4] Gunus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f.[6] Species: Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.

Source :[ 4,6]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: It is a 25-40 m [1] tall tree with a straight trunk and a rather open and spherical crown. D. costatus can reach a diameter of up to 160 cm [6]. [Bark]: The bark is pale brown and peeling in thin, rounded flakes. [Leaves]: The leaves are 8-14 x 4-8 cm [2] and usually egg-shaped. They have slightly pointed tips and blunt or slightly heart-shaped bases. The young leaves are covered with star-shaped hairs. Mature leaves have scattered short hairs on veins and the lower surface. [Flowers]: The flowers are 2 cm long [2] and pale orange. They appear in short unbranched clusters of 3-6 flowers [2] at axils of young leaves. [Fruit]: The fruit (=nut) has two long wings with a length of 8-12 cm [2]. The body of the fruit is 1.2-1.5 cm long [2]. Young fruits are bright red. [1, 2, 6]

I. Wood properties: The density of the wood is 0.74-0.97g/cm³ [6] at 15% moisture content. It is not durable if exposed to the weather. [4, 6]

Dipterocarpus costatus is a species of the Indochinese and Malay Peninsula, which is often found together with D. turbinatus, although it is rather confined to higher altitudes. It grows in mixed dense deciduous or half- deciduous primary forests of the plains and wet dense hillforests. [1, 4]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : This tree thrives in an elevation of 0-1,200 m a.s.l. [5]. A tropical monsoon climate with a mean annual rainfall of 2,500-4,500 mm [5] and dry season of 0-4 months [10] is suited best. However, the optimal annual rainfall is between 2,800 and 3,500 mm [5]. The optimal temperature ranges from 21°C to 31°C [5]. The lowest temperature is 10°C [5] and the highest temperature is 38°C [5]. [5, 10]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : D. costatus grows on well drained medium fertile to rich soils with a heavy to medium soil texture. This tree is adapted to a soil pH that ranges from 5 to 6 [5]. Only a low soil salinity of <4 dS/m[5] is tolerated.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation :

2

[1, 5]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The timber is used in construction and ship building, but is not durable if exposed to the elements. It is also used for charcoal. [1, 4, 5] [Non-wood]: A valuable oleo-resin (=wood-oil) is collected from the tree which is used in the paint industry, for the caulking of boats, the preparation of torches and in traditional medicine for treating ulcers. [1, 2, 4, 5, 6] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : Second class [8]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Dipterocarpus costatus grows together with D. turbinatus in mixed dense deciduous or halfdeciduous primary forests of the plains and wet dense hill forests. [Natural Regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the

3

seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [9]. [Establishment]: When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria. [Management]: No information available. [1, 4, 9]

Q. Propagation : Natural regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting. [9]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : It has been classified as endangered ('EN' [4]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). [4]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Bangladesh, Myanmar, India (Andaman Islands), Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and NMalaysia [4, 6] [Introduced]: Apparently this species has not been introduced outside its natural range of distribution. [10]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Hybrids]: "A natural hybrid between D. costatus and D. obtusifolius has been observed in Thailand and Myanmar, and between D. costatus and D. gracilis in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia"[6].

Foxworthy, F.W., 1932. Dipterocarpaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan Forest Records No 10. Printers Limited, Singapore. 289 pp. [6]

Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444. [6]

X. References: [1] Dy Phon, 2000, Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia

[2] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[3] JICA, 2003: Use of indigenous tree species in reforestation in Vietnam.

[4]ARCBC BISS species database http://arcbc.org/cgibin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=76267485&spd=6286&tx=PL (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

W. Further readings5 :

4

[5] ECOCROP: http://ecocrop.fao.org (Internet source)

[6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[7] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[8] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[9] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[10] Bertram, A., 2006: Own observations.

5

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

No synonym available.

D. Other1

³

keruing etoi, keruing daun besar (Malaysia) [1] - kanyin thi (Myanmar) [1] - yang-klong, yang-man-mu, yang-sian, yang yung, yung, yung dam (Thailand) [1, 2] - d[aaf]u song n[af]ng (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

eQITalQ¶ Source: [5]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhë: ti:ël chngâ:(r), chhë: ti:ël pruhs, chngâ:(r). [1], royieng, chhe tiel pruhs, chhe tiel th’ngor [3], cheuteal chngo [4],

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

chhoeuteal chhngar [9]

1

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f. Species: Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A medium-sized to large semi-deciduous tree of up to 40 m [1] tall (30-40 m [3, 6]). "It is one of the biggest tree species in S-Vietnam" [6]. The bole is cylindrical, straight and branchless for up to 25 m [1] with low buttresses and a maximum DBH of 125 cm [1] (150 cm and more [6]). Young twigs are almost hairless, while older twigs are red brown with a ring of stipule-scars and covered with grey, reddish or brown hairs. The buds are egg- to spear-shaped and covered with velvety brownish hair. [Bark]: The bark surface is pale grey or blackish-brown, rough and flakes off into small pieces. The inner bark is yellowish-brown to brown red and 6-10 mm [6] thick. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple, narrowly egg-shaped to elliptical, 16-40 x 7.5-14 cm [1] in size (1345 x 8-20 cm [2], 5-25 cm long or more [6]) with a 5 mm long [1] pointed tip and a blunt, wedgeshaped or heart-shaped base. Young leaves are covered with dense hair, especially on veins on lower surface. Mature leaves, however, are hairless on the upper surface. The secondary veins are in pairs of 24-30 [1] (20-30 [2], 18-31 [6]), ascending and obvious beneath. The leaf stalk is 4-6 cm long [1] (3-8 cm [2], 4-8 cm [6]) with spear-shaped stipules 15-20 x 2-4 cm in size, red inside and hairy outside. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=simple raceme) is hairy, 10-18 cm long [6] (10-20 cm [2]) with 6-8 flowers [6]. The outer flower-leaves (=sepals) form an ellipsoid and hairless tube, 1.7 cm long [6] with 5 narrow ridges [1] running from the apex along 2/3 of the length of the tube. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are pink and hairless, 5 cm long [6]. The flower contains 30 stamens [1, 6]. The flower buds elongate for 4-5 cm [2]. Flowering season is all year around from January to December [2] (June-

[Fruits]: Fruits also mature during the whole year from January to December [2] (July-December [6]). The hairy fruit (=nut) is pointed, oblong or more or less conical with a size of 4 x 2.8 cm. It has 5 fruit wings, 2 larger ones up to 20 x 5.5 cm [1] (18-25 x 3.5-4 cm [2], 20-23 cm x 3-4 cm [6]) with 3 principal veins and 3 shorter ones up to 1.5 x 0.6 cm [1] (1.5-2 x 0.5 cm [2]). [1, 2, 3, 6]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is rather thick, the heartwood is brownish red, hard and heavy with a density of 0.63-0.83 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [1] (0.8 g/cm³ [6]) and easy to work. [1, 6]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : D. dyeri is a widespread but scattered species occurring from lower Myanmar (Mergui) to Indochina except Laos and North Vietnam and to Northwest Peninsular Malaysia (Perlis and north Kedah). It grows in semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest and Schima-bamboo forest, often in gallery forests along streams, on swamp edges or in narrow valleys at low elevation. It can also be found in moist evergreen forests where it is present in the highest storey of the forest, sometimes sparsely or

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

August [6])

2

gregariously as a dominant stand. In Cambodia it is found in semi-deciduous forest with Lagerstroemia, Peltophorum, Cratoxylon, Anogeissus and Irvingia as the most frequent species. In closed evergreen forest it is associated with Parinarium annamense, Vatica sp., Shorea hypochra, Dipterocarpus intricatus, Diospyros helferi, Sindora cochinchinensis, Peltophorum dasyrachis, Grewia paniculata, Spondias spp., Cratoxylon, Payena elliptica, Memecylon laevigatum, Murraya exotica, Caryoa urens and Corypha lecomtei. [1, 2, 3, 6, 9]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : It occurs in altitudes below 800 m a.s.l. [6] (under 500 m [2]). D. dyeri grows in tropical monsoon climate with a distinct dry season. It is a light demanding tree but shade tolerant, when young. [2, 6]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Dipterocarpus dyeri thrives well on grey soils and stony brown soils in depressions which may not be well drained during the rainy season. [9]

N. Utilization and importance :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Wood]: The timber is used and traded as 'keruing', however is less valuable than that of Shorea

3

roxburghii and Hopea odorata, but its volume is higher" [6]. It is commonly used for house construction, boat- and furniture making. [1, 3, 6] [Non-wood]: It is possible to exploit the wood oil which is mostly used for the preparation of traditional torches. [1, 3, 6] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class [4]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Dipterocarpus dyeri grows in semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest and Schima-bamboo forest, often in gallery forests along streams, on swamp edges or in narrow valleys at low elevation. It can also be found in moist evergreen forests where it is present in the highest storey of the forest, sometimes sparsely or gregariously as a dominant stand. In Cambodia it is found in semi-deciduous forest with Lagerstroemia, Peltophorum, Cratoxylon, Anogeissus and Irvingia as the most frequent

species. In closed evergreen forest it is associated with Parinarium annamense, Vatica sp., Shorea hypochra, Dipterocarpus intricatus, Diospyros helferi, Sindora cochinchinensis, Peltophorum dasyrachis, Grewia paniculata, Spondias spp., Cratoxylon, Payena elliptica, Memecylon laevigatum, Murraya exotica, Caryoa urens and Corypha lecomtei. [1, 2, 3, 6, 9] [Natural Regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [8]. Natural regeneration is good especially under a forest crown cover of about 0.3-0.4 [6]. [6, 8] [Establishment]: When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria. [8] [Management]: No information available.

Q. Propagation : Until now propagation is mostly restricted to natural regeneration. Planting of seedlings is also a practiced method.

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : It is widespread but fragmented through its potential distribution range with small numbers of individual trees. "The number of recent and past collections are comparable" [2]. It has been classified as critically endangered (CR A1cd+2cd, B1+2c [2], "A1a should also be included" [2]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). "At present this species is an important object for exploitation in many forests of SVietnam" [6]. [2, 6]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6, 8]

4

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Cambodia, Laos [6] (not occurring in Laos [2]) Malaysia (Peninsular), Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam. [1, 2, 6, 7] [Introduced]: Apparently this species has not been grown outside its natural distribution. [10]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444. [1]

Choo, K.T. & Sim, H.C., 1981. Malaysian timbers - keruing. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 48. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 18 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

5

Daljeet-Singh, K., 1974. Seed pests of some dipterocarps. Malaysian Forester 37: 24-36. [1]

Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960-. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. [1]

Fundter, J.M., 1982. Names for dipterocarp timbers and trees from Asia. Pudoc, Wageningen. 251 pp. [1]

Smitinand, T., Santisuk, T. & Phengklai, C., 1980. The manual of Dipterocarpaceae of mainland South-East Asia. Thai Forestry Bulletin 12: 1-110. [1]

Symington, C.F., 1941. Foresters' manual of dipterocarps. Malayan Forest Records No 16. Forest Department, Kuala Lumpur. pp. xliii + 244. [1]

van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors), 1950-. Flora Malesiana. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London. [1]

Wong, W.C. & Ong, C.L., 1986. Particleboard from oily keruing. Malaysian Forester 49: 65-71. [1]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[2] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Dipterocarpus.htm (Internet source)

[4] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[5] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[6] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[7] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe

[8] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.

[9] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

[10] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

No synonym available.

D. Other1

³

may sa beng (Trade name) [4] - krat, hiang krat, chik, cha baeng, tabaeng, hiang khon, sat, tat (Thailand) [1] - dau trai, dau long (Vietnam) [4]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

Rtac Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krai, trai [1], trach, trach sa, trach snaeng, trach sra [2] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Phylum: Spermatophyta

1

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f. Species: Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A large deciduous tree, 20-30 m high [4] (15-30 m [2]) and 60-80 cm in DBH. Twigs and buds are covered with many star-shaped grey yellow to brown hairs. [Bark]: The bark surface is grey brown or dark brown and longitudinally splitted into pieces. The inner bark is orange pink, 8-10 mm [4] thick or more.

[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, alternate and egg-shaped to oblong with a wedge-shaped base and a blunt leaftip, 10-30 x 8-14 cm [4] in size and hairy on both surfaces but especially on the lower surface. The secondary veins occur in 14 (-21) pairs [4] (10-15 pairs [1]. Leafstalks are 3-4.5 cm long [4] with protecting buds. The stipules are 3 cm long [4]. Dipterocarpus intricatus loses its leaves for only a few days every year. Old leaves fall in the end of December, young leaves appear in the beginning of January [4]. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=raceme) is 16-18 cm long [4], often branched in 2-4, each branch consisting of 6-8 flowers [4], arranged in 2 rows with stalk-less flower at the place where the branches divide. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fused into a 5 lobed hairless tube, with the longest lobe 14 mm long [4], the other smaller lobes 2-3 mm long [4]. The outer flower leaves (=petals) are red, 3 cm long [4] and sickle-shaped. The flower contains 30 stamens [4]. Flowering starts in January [4] (January-December [1]). [Fruits]: Fruiting occurs from March to April [4] (January-November [1]). The fruit is opposite eggshaped, red when young and brown when mature, 2 x 1-1.5 cm [1] (1.5 cm long [4]). The fruit wings are spirally folded, 5 winded, with two large wings 6-7 x 1.5 cm [1] (8-11 cm long [4]) with 3-5 basal veins. The 3 shorter wings are approximately 1 x 0.5 cm [1] and curled back. [1, 2, 4, 7]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is reddish and thin, the heartwood is red brown to dark red with a coarse texture and is heavy with a density of 0.66-0.93

[2, 4]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Dipterocarpus intricatus is a native species of the Indochine Peninsula where it is commonly found in open dry deciduous dipterocarp forests and periodically flooded plain forests mixed with other dipterocarps or in pure stands. "In Thailand, it is fairly common in open deciduous dipterocarp forest in the northeast. It is also found in the transition zone between dry evergreen and deciduous dipterocarp forests with Pinus merkusii" [1]. In Cambodia it occurs in open forests with other dipterocarps, in dense forests or secondary forests where Pinus merkusii is more or less abundant. There it is associated with Calophyllum spp., Payena elliptica, Carallia lucida, Eugenia zeylanica, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Anisoptera spp., Shorea cochinchinensis, Shorea cf. hypochra, Parinarium annamense, Irvingia oliveri, Sindora cochinchinensis, Fragraea fragrans and Melanorrhoea laccifera. It is one of the dominant species in Cambodian open dry dipterocarp forest stands. There it grows with Capparis, Randia tomentosa, Memecylon laevigatum, Memecylon edule, Buchanania, Intsia, Irvingia oliveri, Cratoxylon spp., Terminalia mucronata, Pterocarpus pedatus, Dalbergia oliveri, Albizzia lebeck, Eugenia spp., Shorea cochinchinensis, Ochrocarpus spp., Azadirachta indica, Parinarium annamense, and Gardenia spp. In degraded dense deciduous forest it grows with Xylia, Schleichera, Andina, Spondias, Ceiba, Vitex, Hymenodyclion,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

g/cm³. It is durable and resistant to termites and insects.

2

Sterculia colorata, Milletia erythrocalyx, Strychnos, Schrebera, Holarrhena antidysenteria and species of the open forest like Cycas siamensis, Shorea obtusa, Careya, Arundinaria falcata, Buchanania latifolia, Terminalia bialata, Terminalia tomentosa, Aporosa (Krung), Phoenix humilis and common elements of secondary forests such as Combretum quadrangulare, Cratoxylon, Zizyphus, Cochlospermum, Streblus asper and Oroxylum. In closed moist evergreen forests it grows with Shorea cochinchinensis and Eugenia spp. It can also be found in degraded open forest (shrub savanna). [1, 2, 4, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : D. intricatus is mostly found in plains but also in hilly areas up to 500 m [2] (up to 400 m altitude [1], from 50-700 m [4], also below 50 m [7]). A tropical monsoon climate with a distinct dry season of 3-6 months [8] is suited best. [1, 2, 4, 7, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Generally it grows on ferrallitic or sandy soils. "In the Prek Te region (Cambodia) it grows on soils which are sandy and easily friable (=easily breaking down into crumbs, like old bread). Their color is white to greyish on the surface, yellowish at 20 cm depth, becoming more and more solid with depth, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

more humid and loamy with traces of iron below 50 cm depth and lateritic concretions (= hard pieces

3

of Al-Fe oxides). The parent (=underlying) rock, sometimes reaching the surface, consists of siliceous (=containing silicon) sandstone. Termite mounds are rare" [7]. [4, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is appreciated for the construction of carts and houses. [2, 4] [Non-wood]: The grey brown resin is collected from the tree and used in the same way as the one of Dipterocarpus alatus (see chapter 'Utilization and Importance' in the datasheet of Dipterocarpus alatus). It is mainly used for the preparation of torches. [2, 4] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : nd

2 class [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Dipterocarpus intricatus is is commonly found in open dry deciduous dipterocarp forests and periodically flooded plain forests mixed with other dipterocarps or in pure stands. In Cambodia it occurs in open forests with other dipterocarps, in dense forests or secondary forests where Pinus merkusii is more or less abundant. It is one of the dominant species in Cambodian open dry dipterocarp forest stands and in degraded dense deciduous forests but also in degraded open forest (shrub savanna). In closed moist evergreen forests it grows with Shorea cochinchinensis and Eugenia spp. [1, 2, 4, 7] [Natural regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [6] . [Establishment]: "When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria" [6]. [Management]: No information available.

Q. Propagation : Natural and coppice regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting. [4, 6]

[Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : This species has not yet been classified according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, its status is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc). Although it is confined to the northeast of Thailand and Indochina, it is common throughout its potential distribution. [1]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

R. Hazards and protection :

4

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia. [4, 5] [Introduced]: Apparently this species does not occur yet outside of its natural range. [8]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Hybrids]: "Dipterocarpus intricatus x D. tuberculatus was collected in Sakaerat, Nakhon Ratchasima (Thailand). It is characterised by intermediate characters of the fruit." [1]

W. Further readings5 : No information available.

X. References: [1] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Anisoptera.htm (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

5

[3] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[4] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[5] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe (Internet source)

[6] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.

[7] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

[8] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq] ³

Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

Dipterocarpus vestitus Wallich ex Dyer (1874), Dipterocarpus

A. Latin name

(s)

punctulatus Pierre (1889) [1]

D. Other1

³

keruing (Trade name) [1], keruing beludu, atoi (Malaysia) [1] - in bo, in byu, in hmwe sok, kung (Myanmar) [1, 2] - (maiz) s'a:d (Laos) [1] - yang-hiang, krat, ko satiang, hiang, sat, sa baeng, ta baeng [1, 2] (Thailand) - d[aaf]u tr[af] beng (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

Et,g

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [4]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ (daëm) thbaèng, thbaèng, ba:y sra:, thbaèng snaèng [1, 3] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f. Species: Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq.

Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A medium-sized to large deciduous tree of up to 30 m tall [1] (25-30 m [5], 10-15 m [3], -28 m [6]). The trunk is cylindrical, straight [5] (often of poor form [1]), up to 20 m long [1] with a maximum DBH of 80 cm [1] (50-80 cm [5]). The crown is of bronze-green color, open and spreading. Twigs are rather gross, slightly flat and covered with long hairs. Buds are spearshaped, covered by pale brown hairs or sometimes hairless. [Bark]: The outer bark is rough, grey, greyish brown to dark grey, deeply cracked and longitudinally splitted. The inner bark is reddish brown or reddish. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple, alternate, leathery elliptical to broadly egg-shaped, blunt or rounded at both ends, 15-30 x 10-18 cm [6] (14-22 cm x 10-16 cm [1], 9-15 cm long [5]). The margin is hairy with small teeth. Upper surface hairless, only hairy with star shaped hairs on the midrib when mature, the lower surface is hairy with star-shaped hairs beneath. The leaf-blade has 10-18 pairs of side veins [6] (14-20 pairs [1], 10-15 pairs [5]). The leaf stalks are 2.5-4 cm long [1, 6] (3-5 cm [5]), flat and gross with 7-12 mm [6] long stipules which are hairy and bright pink. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=spike) is axillary and consists short unbranched clusters of 5-6 inferior flowers [5] (3-7 flowers [6]) with short stalks. Flowers are 3.5-5 cm long [6] with 1.4 cm long [6] outer flowerleaves (=sepals) which are fused together into a hairy tube. Each flower contains 30 stamens [1] (=male organs). Flowering season is all year round from January-December [2] (only January-May [5]) [Fruits]: The fruits also mature during the whole year from January-December [2] (only April-August

enlarged at the base, with star shaped hairs and 2 larger and 3 smaller wings. The larger wings have a size of 15 cm x 3 cm [1] (8-15 x 1.5-4 cm [2], 10-14 x 2.3 cm [6]) and are curved sharply down at the margin. The 3 shorter ones are up to 15 mm x 10 mm [1] in size (1.5-2 x 1-1.5 cm [2], less than than 1 cm [6]). [1, 2, 3, 5, 6]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive with a brownish sapwood and a light red or brownish red heartwood with rather gross grains. The wood is hard and heavy with a density of 0.71-0.9 g/cm³ [1, 5] at 15% moisture content. It polishes well, but is difficult to work, splits easily and is not durable in the open. It dries best under a roof cover. [1, 3, 5, 7]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : D. obtusifolius is a characteristic and frequently gregarious tree of the Indo-Burmese and Indochinese region. Generally it occurs in open deciduous dry dipterocarp forests, bamboo forests and degraded forests where it forms an dominant element of the stand. However, it only occurs sparsely on extremely degraded sites. In Thailand it is locally common in coastal lowland deciduous dipterocarp forest in the peninsula, fairly common all over the northeast in lowland deciduous forest, and

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[5]). The fruit (=nut) is globe shaped and smooth, 2.5-3 cm in diameter [5] (2.5-3.5 cm [6]), slightly

2

submontane pine forest and deciduous dipterocarp forest in the north. In Vietnam it forms an important component of dry diptercarp forest (deciduous open forest). There it is often mixed with Dipterocarpus intricatus, Dipterocarpus turbinatus and Shorea obtusa. "At high elevations in Lam Dong (Vietnam) it is mixed with Pinus keysia and Pinus merkusii and some species of the Fagaceae family" [5]. In Cambodia it occurs in open forests with other dipterocarps, in dense forests or secondary forest where Pinus merkusii is more or less abundant. There it is associated with Calophyllum sp., Payena elliptica, Carallia lucida, Eugenia zeylanica, Dipterocarpus intricatus, Anisoptera sp., Shorea cochinchinensis, Shorea cf. hypochra, Parinarium annamense, Irvingia oliveri, Sindora cochinchinensis, Fragraea fragrans and Melanorrhoea laccifera. It also grows in pine forests on sandstone plateaus together with Pinus merkusii, Careya arborea, Melanorrhoea laccifera, Dillenia, Randia tomentosa, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Tristania birmanica, Symplocos, Engelhardtia serrata, Lithocarpus and Erythroxylon. In degraded open forests (shrub savannas) it grows together with Melanorrhea, Fragraea, Calophyllum, Irvingia, Anneslea, Tristania birmanica and Aporosa. [1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : D. obtusifolius is a tree of the lowlands to submontane regions with an elevation of up to 1,200 m a.s.l. [3] (100-1,300 m [5]). A tropical monsoon climate with a dry season of 3-6 months [10] is suited best. It is a light demanding tree when mature, very resistant to forest fire and very drought tolerant. [3, 5, 6, 10]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

No information available.

3

M. soil and site conditions : Sandy or grey slightly acidic soils, which are sometimes inundated in the rainy season, are suitable for this species. [5, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The timber is used and traded as 'keruing'. It is demanded for light construction [3] (general construction [7]), bridge construction [5], furniture making and for plywood. [1, 3, 5, 7] [Non-wood]: The resin of the trunk is used to make torches. However, resin from the bark has a low productivity and hardens rapidly. The young cut stalks, give sufficient drinking water to quench a traveler. The leaves are used to wrap food or roll cigarettes. [3, 5, 7] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class [4]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Generally D. obtusifolius occurs in open deciduous dry dipterocarp forests, bamboo forests and degraded forests where it forms an dominant element of the stand. However, it only occurs sparsely ono extremely degraded sites. In Thailand it is locally common in coastal lowland deciduous dipterocarp forest in the peninsula, fairly common all over the northeast in lowland deciduous forest, and submontane pine forest and deciduous dipterocarp forest in the north. In Vietnam it forms an important component of dry diptercarp forest (deciduous open forest). There it is often mixed with Dipterocarpus intricatus, Dipterocarpus turbinatus and Shorea obtusa. "At high elevations in Lam Dong (Vietnam) it is mixed with Pinus keysia and Pinus merkusii and some species of the Fagaceae family" [5]. In Cambodia it occurs in open forests with other dipterocarps, in dense forests or secondary forest where Pinus merkusii is more or less abundant. It also grows in pine forest on sandstone plateaus together with Pinus merkusii. It is also foung in degraded open forests (shrub savannas). [1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7] [Natural regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [8].

auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria" [8]. [Management]: No information available.

Q. Propagation : Natural and coppice regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting. [5, 8]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : This species has not yet been classified according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, its status is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc). [2]

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[Establishment]: "When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia

4

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular), India, Myanmar (Pegu, Hantawaddy, Tavoy, Thaung Yin, Tenasserim). [1, 2, 5, 7] [Introduced]: Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia (Borneo) [1]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Hybrids and Varieties]: "A natural hybrid between D. obtusifolius and D. costatus has been observed in Thailand and Myanmar. In Indo-China a hairless form is distinguished and called var. subnudus Ryan & Kerr." [1].

W. Further readings5 : Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]

5

Choo, K.T. & Sim, H.C., 1981. Malaysian timbers - keruing. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 48. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 18 pp. [1]

Daljeet-Singh, K., 1974. Seed pests of some dipterocarps. Malaysian Forester 37: 24-36. [1]

Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960-. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. [1]

Fundter, J.M., 1982. Names for dipterocarp timbers and trees from Asia. Pudoc, Wageningen. 251 pp. [1]

Smitinand, T., Santisuk, T. & Phengklai, C., 1980. The manual of Dipterocarpaceae of mainland South-East Asia. Thai Forestry Bulletin 12: 1-110. [1]

Symington, C.F., 1941. Foresters' manual of dipterocarps. Malayan Forest Records No 16. Forest Department, Kuala Lumpur. pp. xliii + 244. [1]

van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors), 1950-. Flora Malesiana. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London. [1]

Wong, W.C. & Ong, C.L., 1986. Particleboard from oily keruing. Malaysian Forester 49: 65-71. [1]

X. References:

[2] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Dipterocarpus.htm (Internet source)

[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[4] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[5] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[6] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[7] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

6

[8] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.

[9] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[10] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

7

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.] ³

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

Dipterocarpus grandifolius Teym., Dipterocarpus cordatus

A. Latin name

(s)

[1], Dipterocarpus cordata Wall [4]

D. Other1

³

phluang, tueng, kung, khuang, mai-tueng (Thailand) [1] – mai-tueng (Myanmar) [1] - dau dong (Vietnam) [4]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

xøúg Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khlong [1], khlong kraham, khlong sa [2] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae

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Phylum: Spermatophyta

1

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f. Species: Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A deciduous medium- or large-sized tree up to 15-25 m in height [2, 5, 8] (-30 m on good soil [4]). The stem is straight sometimes gnarled, cylindrical, short, stout and reaches a DBH of 40-60 cm [4]. On good soils the stem form is very good. The crown is mostly large and thin with twisted branches and rough, reddish violet and hairy twigs which bear buds with golden brown tufted hairs.

[Bark]: The outer bark is dark grey, deeply longitudinally fissured and usually flaked off into thick, hard pieces. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple, spiral and very large, especially on the shoots and seedlings, 20-50 x 18-34 cm [4] (12-70 x 10-50 cm [1], 30-45 x 12-35 cm [5]), egg-shaped to elliptical, with a blunt leaf tip or ending in a sharp tip. The leaf base is heart shaped, with a margin of small teeth on old leaves and 9-16 pairs of secondary veins [4] which are prominent on the lower surface, with closely arranged venules. Leafstalks are gross, flat and 5-7.5 cm long [4] (3.5-12 cm [1]) with bright pink 7-10 cm long [4] stipules. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=raceme) consists of clusters with 6-8 [4, 5] non stalked flowers. The flowers are 2.5-3 cm long [4, 5], pale pink violet, with 28-30 stamens [5]. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are often darker and red violet on one side. Flowering season is in December [4] (FebruaryJuly [1]) [Fruits]: Fruits mature from September to May [4] (March-December [1]). The fruit (=nut) is globeshaped to egg-shaped, 2-3 cm long [4] ( 2-2.5 cm in diameter [1]), hairless or often star-shaped hairy, with 5 lateral ribs at the upper part. The 2 larger fruit wings are 9-15 x 2.5-4 cm in size [1] (9-16 cm long [4], up to 20 cm long [5]) with 3-5 main veins [5] (3 veins [4]) reaching 3/4 the length of the wing. The 3 shorter lobes are very flat, 1.5-2 x 1.5 cm in size [1] and curved sharply down at the margin. [1, 2, 4, 5, 8]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Sap- and heartwood are distinctive with a grey color and a red brown color

very durable if protected from rain and sunlight [4] (The wood is resistant to bad weather [2]. It is fairly durable [6]). Generally it is easy to work but difficult to polish. [2, 4, 6]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : D. tuberculatus is an Indo-Burmese and Indochinese tree species which is commonly growing in open dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, developing pure stands or mixed with Dipterocarpus obtusifolius and Dipterocarpus intricatus ("It is nearly certain that Dipterocarpus tuberculatus can be found nowhere else than in the mixed savanna forests" [9]. ) "In Thailand, throughout the country, except in the peninsula and southeast it is confined to open deciduous dipterocarp forest to deciduous dipterocarp pine-oak forest" [1]. It is "the most abundant tree in Chiang Mai Province (Thailand), often growing in large numbers on very degraded, fire damaged sites sometimes with Pinus merkusii" [5]. In Cambodia it is found in mixed open forest, where it dominates the stand with Shorea obtusa and Terminalia tomentosa. [1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9]

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respectively. The heartwood is darkening in the open air, rather heavy with a density of 0.9 g/cm³. It is

2

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : This tree grows from the lowlands to submontane regions with an elevation of up to 200-800 m a.s.l. [4] (800-1,000 m [2, 8]). A tropical monsoon climate with a dry season of 3-6 months [11] is suited best. It is a light demanding tree when mature, and resistant to forest fire and very drought tolerant. [2, 4, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : D. tuberculatus is occurring on various soil types, but commonly on sandy soil. On deep and fertile soil it grows very well. It is also found on acidic lateritic soils. [4, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is used in general construction, to make beams, boards, for manufacturing boats and for furniture making. [2, 4, 6, 8] [Non-wood]: Resin extracted from the tree can be burnt for lighting or blended with paints. The resin is also used in traditional medicine where it is mixed with Feaula assafoetida Linn. and coconut oil as an

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

application for large ulcers. Large mature leaves of young trees are used for thatching roofs. The

3

leaves are not flammable or susceptible to insects and can last for up to three years. [2, 4, 6, 8] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : nd

2 class [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: D. tuberculatus is commonly growing in open dry deciduous dipterocarp forests developing pure stands or mixed with Dipterocarpus obtusifolius and Dipterocarpus intricatus ("It is nearly certain that Dipterocarpus tuberculatus can be found nowhere else than in the mixed savanna forests" [9]. ) "In Thailand, throughout the country, except in the peninsula and southeast it is confined to open deciduous dipterocarp forest to deciduous dipterocarp pine-oak forest" [1]. It is "the most abundand tree in Chiang Mai Province (Thailand), often growing in large numbers on very degraded, fire damaged sites sometimes with Pinus merkusii" [5]. In Cambodia it is found in mixed open forest, where it dominates the stand with Shorea obtusa and Terminalia tomentosa. [1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9]

[Natural regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [7]. [Establishment]: "When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria" [7]. [Management]: No information available.

Q. Propagation : Natural regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting. [7]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: The leaves are not susceptible to insects. [8] [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : This species has not yet been classified according to the IUCN (International Union for the

is suggested as a species 'near threatened' (LR nt [1]). It has fewer individual trees than other common deciduous dipterocarps, though found throughout its potential distribution range. The estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) are more than 10,000 trees threatened by logging and more than 500 threatened by fire. [1, 10]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : World Distribution]: [Native]: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar [1, 4, 6] [Introduced]: India (Manipur), Bangladesh (Chittagong) [1]

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Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, its status

4

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Hybrids]: "According to Pooma (2002), there are two forms of hybridization: Pooma et al. 3387 (BKF), the leaves are typical Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, but with intermediate fruit form; and Wongprasert 22 (BKF), the leaves are typical D. tuberculatus but with pubescent calyx and petioles as in D. obtusifolius" [1].

W. Further readings5 : No information available.

X. References: [1] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Dipterocarpus.htm (Internet source)

[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[3] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[4] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[5] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

5

[6] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe (Internet source)

[7] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.

[8] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[9] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

[10] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

[11] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F. Gaertn]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F. Gaertn] ³

Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F. Gaertn

B. English name (s)

³

common gurjun tree, wood oil tree of Assam [8]

C. Synonym

³

Dipterocarpus laevis Buch.-Ham., Dipterocarpus jourdainii

A. Latin name

(s)

Pierre [1, 2], Dipterocarpus andamanicus (King) P. K. Tewary & A. K. Sarkar [8]

D. Other1

³

garjan, gurjan (Trade name) [8] - yang daeng, yang bai lueam, yang nu, yang khaeng (Thailand) [1] - dau conquay, dau la bong (Vietnam) [4] - kali garjan, telia garjan (Bangladesh) [8] - gurjun kuroil sal, kherjong, kuroil sal, shweta garjan, teli-gurjun (India) [8] - kan yin (Myanmar) [8]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

eQITaleRbg

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhe tiel dang [2], cheuteal preng [3] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f. Species: Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F. Gaertn.

Subspecies: Dipterocarpus turbinatus var. andamanica King, Dipterocarpus turbinatus var. turbinatus

Source :[ 1,8]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: D. turbinatus is a very large deciduous tree reaching a height of 35-50 m [4, 6] (30-45 m [2]). The trunk is long, straight, clean, cylindrical, self pruning and mostly clear of branches for more than 70% of the total height [8]. This species reaches a DBH of at least 170 cm [8] and sometimes even up to 460 cm [8] (200 cm [4]). It is easily mistaken for D. costatus but is has a denser, less spreading crown, young branchlets with stipule scars and a thinner bark. Buds are tufted with pale brown hairs. [Bark]: The outer bark is light grey, hard, rough, fibrous, fissured longitudinally and peeling off in irregular fragments. The inner bark is yellowish brown, fairly thin, sparsely hairy when young and later hairless. [Leaves]: D. turbinatus is characteristically distinguishable from other dipterocarps by its smooth glossy leaves, which become dark coppery brown when dried. Leaves are simple, alternate (17-36) x 5.5 x 20 cm [8] (13-20 x 6-10 cm [4], 17-24 x 9-12 cm [5]), spear-shaped, oval or elliptical. The side veins are distinct with 14-24 pairs [8] (12-17 pairs [1], 14-18 pairs [5]) and hairless on both surfaces. The leafstalk is 2.5-4.0 cm in length [8] (3 cm [4], 2.5-3.5 cm [5]), with caducous (= easily falling)

shed in the dry season (in March [8]) and young leaves grow in spring [4]. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=lax raceme) is 3-5 flowered [4] and develops from the axils of fallen leaves. The whole flower is 2.5-3.5 cm long [5] (3.0-3.5 cm [8]) usually on older twigs behind the leaves. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fused into a cylindrical tube without ridges, which is 1 cm long [4]. The 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) are linear, white, pink or pinkish red. Each flower contains 30 stamens (=male organs) [4] and an ovary (=female organ) with velvet-like hair except on the top. Flowers appear from March-April [8] (Thailand: February-December [1]). [Fruits]: "Fruits tend to ripen approximately from late April to May in Bangladesh and May-June in upper Myanmar. In May-June fruit-fall occurs as the rains begin. Fruiting may be irregular in certain localities, and good seed-years often occur on alternate years" [8] (Fruiting in Thailand: FebruaryDecember [1], in Vietnam: Fruiting in April at the beginning of the dry season [4]). The fruit (=nut) is spindle-shaped and smooth, 3 cm x 1.5 cm [4] (2.5-3 x 2 cm [1], 2-3 cm in diameter [8]). This species differs from other Dipterocarpus spp. due to the absence of ridges and hairs on the fruit. The 2 larger fruit wings are 10-15 x 2-3.5 cm [1] in size (9 x 2 cm [4], 11-18 x 2.5-4.0 cm [8]) with 3 main veins, usually without hairs; two of them are shorter than the others. 3 shorter fruit wings have a size of 0.60.8 x 0.5 cm [1] and are curved sharply down at the margin. Each fruit contains one seed and the fruit coat strongly sticks to the seed coat.

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stipules 1.5-9 cm in length [8] (or even as long as 12 cm [8]), densely greyish. The older leaves are

2

[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is greyish brown, red brown or purple brown, very hard with a density of 0.75-0.85 g/cm³ [4]. It has a good mechanical strength, but is not very durable and not resistant to outdoor conditions. Thus, wood preservative treatments are essential for outdoor use, and indoor applications if the products come into contact with the ground. "It seasons quite slowly, and is moderately refractory, but may be successfully kiln-dried. The heartwood is moderately durable against fungal attack, but is susceptible to attack by termites and borers, despite the fact that standing trees are reasonably tolerant. In order to prevent attack, the wood can be treated with pressure methods, such as Lowry's empty cell process and Bethel's full cell process" [8]. The calorific energy value is 5,300 Kcal/kg (sapwood) [8] and 5,050 Kcal/kg (heartwood) [8]. [2, 4, 6, 8]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 27°N to 5°S [8] (10°N to 25°N [7]). Dipterocarpus turbinatus is a widespread but scattered species which is found from India (West Bengal, Assam, Andaman Islands), Bangladesh, and throughout Myanmar to Indochina. In Thailand, it is widespread except in the east and rare in the peninsula. Generally it grows in the valleys of moist evergreen forests (on grey soil) and semievergreen forests, moist dipterocarp- and dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, in primary and secondary forests respectively. In dry deciduous dipterocarp forests it grows gregariously in pure stands or in some places mixed with Irvingia malayana, Scaphium lychnophora and Parinari annamense. It is Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

often found together with D. costatus, although it is rather confined to lower altitudes.

3

[1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : This tree is a lowland to mid-elevation forest species occurring below 700 m a.s.l [4] but is concentrated from 200-400 m [4] m a.s.l. (100-1,100 m [1], 10-300 m [8]). It grows in the humid tropics (tropical wet & dry (Aw) [7]) with a mean annual rainfall of 2,000-4,000 mm/year [8] (optimal rainfall: 2,500-3,500 mm/year [7], absolute rainfall: 1,500-5,100 mm/year [7]). The relative humidity is approximately 100% [8]. It requires an annual climate with more than 130 rainy days [8] and a summer rainfall regime; the number of dry days may be as low as 0-4 [8]. However, a dry season of 04 months [8] is tolerated. D. turbinatus has adapted to a photoperiod of less than 12 hours [7] (short days). The optimal temperature range for growth is 24-32°C [7] (mean annual temperature of 20-24°C [8]) with a maximum temperature of 40°C [7]. It is suitable for regions where the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month is 6-18°C [8], and the mean maximum temperature is 28-45°C [8] in the hottest month. "Climatological data suggest that D. turbinatus is unsuitable for areas where the absolute minimum temperature falls below 10°C" [8]. It is sensitive to fire and poles which have been severely damaged by fire may fail to recover. "The species has proven relatively windfirm in tropical cyclone zones, such as in Bangladesh, Andamans (India) and Myanmar" [8]. D. turbinatus is shadetolerant during its juvenile stages, and becomes more light-demanding as it matures.

[1, 4, 6, 7, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : D. turbinatus can grow on a diversity of soils, although light-medium loams (cambisols), sandy clay soils with freely drained conditions are preferable. It is commonly found on sandy red or yellow soils (alfisols and ultisols) and grey soils which are slightly acidic with a pH of 4.8-5.8 [8] but neutral soils are also suited. "D. turbinatus tends to grow well on flat valleys on all aspects, in areas liable to flood and also on low-lying hills where northern and eastern aspects are prefered" [8]. It also grows on strongly laterized soil but cannot tolerate calcareous soil. Other soil properties: "Optimal Soil depth: deep (>150 cm), Absolute soil depth: medium (50-150 cm). Optimal Soil fertility: moderate. Absolute soil fertility: low. Soil salinity: low (<4 dS/m). Optimal soil drainage: well (dry spells). Absolute soil drainage: poorly (saturated >50% of year), well (dry spells)" [7]. [2, 4, 7, 8]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: "Due to its wide distribution and high availability, D. turbinatus has become an important timber in the Indian sub-continent. It is widely used for various purposes, and is exported. Several countries in Asia export it in substantial amounts, such as Myanmar, and it is exported to Indonesia and Thailand. The wood is often used for heavy construction in ship-, boat- and bridge-building. It has substitute for European oak, and may be used in flooring. It is use to manufacture plywood, although it has a tendency to peel due to the resin content of the wood. It also makes a good fuelwood (sapwood 5,300 Kcal/kg, and heartwood 5,050 Kcal/kg)" [8]. Other uses include, round wood, transmission poles, posts, stakes, piles, pit props, building poles, roundwood structures, sawn or hewn building timbers, for heavy construction, beams, for light construction, wall panelling, exterior fittings, fences, gates, engineering structures, hydraulic works, containers, boxes, tanks, vats, industrial and domestic woodware, tool handles, brushes, furniture, veneers, vehicle bodies, wood based materials, blockboard and charcoal. [2, 4, 6, 8] [Non-wood]: D. turbinatus is a main source of a commercial oleoresin, which is know locally as 'kangin oil' in Myanmar and 'garjan oil' in Bangladesh. The wood oil is similar to Dipterocarpus alatus but is considered of inferior quality. The resin itself is almost solid after collection and is used for traditional illumination especially to the preparation of torches. "The essential oil consists of two sesquiterpenes, alpha- and beta-gurjunene. The resin remaining after distillation of the volatile oil contains gurjunic acid. The oleoresin is an important ingredient of lithographic ink and an anti-corrosive coating composition for iron" [8]. It is also used as a preservative for bamboo and has various medicinal uses,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

also been used as railway sleeper and transmission pole. D. turbinatus may also be considered as a

4

such as the treatment of ulcers, ring worms and other skin infections. It is a stimulant to mucous surfaces and is also a diuretic. [2, 4, 6, 8] [Others]: "Within its natural range, D. turbinatus is now being planted in preference to exotic species, in order to enhance conservation of the natural ecology" [8]. In Bangladesh it is being used for revegetation purposes. In Myanmar and Bangladesh, it has successfully been established in taungya agroforestry systems. [8]

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class [3]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: D. turbinatus occurs in the valleys of moist evergreen forests (on grey soil) and semievergreen forests, moist dipterocarp- and dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, in primary and secondary forests respectively. In dry deciduous dipterocarp forests it grows gregariously in pure stands or in some places mixed with Irvingia malayana, Scaphium lychnophora and Parinari annamense. It is often found together with D. costatus, although it is rather confined to lower altitudes. D. turbinatus is shade-tolerant when young, but becomes more light-demanding with age. It is able to self-prune, but will not coppice or produce root suckers. "D. turbinatus has been planted in plantations within it's

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habitat range in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Karnataka (India)" [8].

5

[Natural regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [9]. D. turbinatus may regenerate naturally, the seeds germinate in moist soils or partially decomposed litter. In the forest, germination is initiated within 3-4 days [8] after fruit-fall, and is completed within 3 weeks [8]. In shelterwood systems, some seed trees are left for seed dispersal. Clearing the soil surface may enhance the recruitment of young seedlings, the ground is prepared by brush wood cutting. "In Bangladesh, the middle canopy is retained until the seedlings are established, later opening of the canopy may encourage further development" [8]. [Establishment]: Besides natural regeneration, stands are established by using direct sowing and nursery stock. Direct sowing in the field is the general method of regeneration of D. turbinatus and is used over its entire habitat. Planting is preferable in the open with lateral shade which may be provided by tree species such as Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria. "In Bangladesh, after the undergrowth and understorey is removed and the seed-bearers are left standing, the area is burned. The seeds are planted in holes 2.5 cm deep at 1 x 1 m spacing, covered with soil with wings protruding and the soil is pressed lightly. During the rains intensive weeding and hand pulling of creepers is required. Weeding (at least three during the first 3 years), fire-protection and cutting back

climbers are repeated for approximately 3-4 years, until the trees are established and the shelterwood is removed. In Myanmar and Bangladesh, D. turbinatus has successfully been established in taungya agroforestry systems using direct sowing, it is planted as a timber crop and is intercropped with annual agricultural crops. The seeds are sown every 30 cm in rows, and each row is approximately 2 m apart, and it is intercropped with a nurse crop of Tephrosia candida or Cajanas cajan. The seedlings reach approximately 1.8 m in height after 4 years, when they are considered to be fully established" [8]. [Management]: "After 5 years the stand is thinned at 1.2 x 1.2 m spacing, and selection thinning is conducted after 10 years of age. A 10 year old plantation produces an average crop height of 11.9 m and a DBH of 10.4 cm. At 45-60 years rotation the mean annual increment recorded from Bangladesh is 10-12 m³/ha. Haque and Osman (1993) report that pure plantations of D. turbinatus may achieve higher growth rates, in comparison with mixed plantations using Tectona grandis" [8]. [4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: An adult tree with a well developed canopy may produce 5-7 kg of seeds [8]. Ripe fruits are collected from beneath the mother trees, each fruit contains one seed and the whole fruit is treated as a seed for germination. Seeds are recalcitrant with a poor viability, thus they should be stored in the shade and used preferably within a week. The germination rate is 82% [8] with a plant survival rate of 50% [8]. One kilogram of fruit (approximately 130-154 fruits [8]) is estimated to produce 77 plants [8].

[Seed propagation]: "Seedlings may be raised relatively easily in the nursery, using shaded beds or plastic bags or tubes. The seeds are sown within 2-3 days after collection, and covered with soil, leaving the wings protruding. Watering and weeding are necessary, and overhead shading induces vertical growth and reduces branching during the summer. Seedlings may reach a height of 50 cm by the next June (approximately 12-13 months). The seeds send out strong roots under natural nursery conditions. Due to its fast root development (approximately 20 cm in 2 months), the seedlings are raised in transplanting bags (polybags), and then planted out in pits the following season" [8]. [Vegetative propagation]: "D. turbinatus may also be propagated vegetatively using air layering, which is conducted during the monsoon (June-July). Branches of adult trees (0.7-1.0 cm in diameter) are layered with a rooting medium in order to encourage root development, which consists of cow dung, oil-cake and soil (2:1:1 ratio). It takes approximately two months for the roots to bud using the 'Forkert method' with a success rate of approximately 25%" [8].

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No major pest has been recorded for D. turbinatus. Some Lepidoptera larvae may bore into the seeds and fruits. Standing trees are reasonably tolerant against wood borers and termites. [8]

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[8, 9]

6

[Diseases]: No major disease has been recorded for D. turbinatus. [8] [Others]: "Cyclones may sometimes result in destroying the seed before it matures. D. turbinatus is particularly susceptible to fire damage due to its natural oil content, and serious depletion has occurred where 'jhuming' (swidden farming or shifting cultivation) with burning is conducted. In the past fields were burned every 7-10 years; presently with population increase burning occurs every 2-3 years" [8].

S. Conservation : D. turbinatus has been classified as critically endangered (CR A1cd+2cd [1]) and vulnerable (VU A1acd, B2cd [1]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees. However, in Thailand it is still found throughout its fragmented potential distribution range with a number of individual trees. In Cambodia the estimated number of individuals threatened (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) amounts to more than 10,000 tree threatened by logging [11] and more than 1,000 trees threatened by fire [11]. [1, 6, 11]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

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U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) :

7

[World Distribution]: [Native]: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura), Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam [2, 4, 6, 8] [Introduced]: Indonesia [4]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Breeding]: "Currently a tree improvement programme is in progress at the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI) in Chittagong. BFRI has selected approximately 150 provisional plus trees from its natural habitat in Bangladesh, and established approximately eight hectares of clonal seed orchards. However, these plus tree seedlings are not yet sold to forest managers and currently the majority of planting stock is raised from seed" [8].

W. Further readings5 : Anon, 1983. Bangladesh Standard Specification for General Purposes. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Standard and Testing Institution. [8]

Anon, 1985. Dipterocarps of South Asia: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, bangkok, Thailand. [8]

Anon, 1988. Bangladesh Standard Code of Practice for Preservation of Timber. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution. [8]

Banik RL, 1980. Studies on sowing position of garjan seeds on their germination and seedling behaviour. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 9(1/2):43-52; 6 ref. [8]

Series. Chittagong, Bangladesh: Forest Research Institute. [8]

Das S, 1980. Dipterocarp forests of Bangladesh and their management. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 9(1/2):71-86; 7 ref. [8]

Dochnal EF, 1987. Review of Provisional Yield Tables Set-up. Assistance to the Forestry Sector of Bangladesh - Phase II. FAO Project BGD/85/085. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organizations of United Nations. [8]

Finnemore H, 1926. The Essential Oils. London, UK: Benn Limited. [8]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Das DK, 1970. Anatomy of Dipterocarpus Species Timbers of East Pakistan. Bull. 2, Wood Anatomy

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Haque MA, Rahman AHMM, Choudhury JH, 1985. Effect of harvesting time and sowing interval of garjan seeds on germination. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 14(1/2):30-35; 10 ref. [8]

Haque SMS, Osman KT, 1993. Performance of gurjan (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) and teak (Tectona grandis) in pure and mixed plantations at Kaptai, Bangladesh. Indian Forester, 119(9):738-743; 9 ref. [8]

Khan MS, 1984. Dipterocarpaceae. Flora of Bangladesh, No. 25. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh National Herbarium. [8]

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD, 1935. Indian Medicinal Plants. 2nd edition, Vol 1. Dehra Dun, India: Bishen Singh Mohendra Pal Singh. [8]

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Latif MA, Dey BC, Das Gupta SR, 1978. Treatability of nineteen timber species of Bangladesh. Bano

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Biggyan Patrika, 7(1/2):1-8; 5 ref. [8]

Limye VD, 1939. Properties of woods grown in India. Dehra Dun, India: Forest Research Institute. [8]

Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Plantation trees., xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections]. [8]

Martindale, 1958. The Extra Pharmacopocia, Vol 2. London, UK: Pharmacuetical Press. [8]

Rai SN, 1978. Pre-treatment of seeds of Albizia falcata, A. chinensis and A. richardiana.. Myforest, 14(4):241-245; 1 ref.

[8]

Rai SN, 1983. Notes on nursery and regeneration techniques of some species occurring in southern tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Karnataka (India). Indian Forester, 109(3):127136. [8]

Rashid MH, Serajuddoula M, Banik RL, Matin A, 1986. Vegetative propagation of forest trees in Bangladesh. Bulletin 1. Chittagong, Bangladesh: Silviculture Genetics Division, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute. [8]

Rashid MH, Serajuddoula M, 1984. Vegetative propagation of dhakijam and garjan by air-layering. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 13(1/2):64-66; 5 ref. [8]

Sattar MA, 1980. Kiln drying schedules for indigenous timbers of Bangladesh. Bulletin, Forest

[8]

Sattar MA, 1981. Some physical properties of 116 Bangladeshi timbers. Bulletin, Forest Research Institute, Bangladesh, Wood Seasoning, No. 7:15 pp.; 1 ref. [8]

Sen Gupta JN, 1937. Seed weights, plant percents, etc. for forest plants in India. Indian Forest Records, Silviculture, 2(5):175-221. [8]

Tewary PK, Sarkar AK, 1987. Lectotypification of Dipterocarpus andamanicus (King) Tewary & Sarkar comb. nov. & stat. nov. (Dipterocarpaceae). Indian Journal of Forestry, 10(1):63-64. [8]

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Research Institute, Chittagong, Wood Seasoning, No. 4:ii + 11 pp.; 9 ref.

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Thangam ES, 1982. Regeneration methods of Dipterocarpus species in India. Indian Forester, 108(10):637-647; 18 ref. [8]

Joshi HB, 1980. Troup's The silviculture of Indian trees. Volume II. Dipterocarpaceae. Troup's The silviculture of Indian trees. Volume II. Dipterocarpaceae., xxxv + 471 pp.; [148 pl. (4 col.)]; 43 pp. ref. [8]

Yakub M, Bhattacharjee DK, Ali MO, 1972. Strength Properties of some Bangladesh Timber Species. Bulletin 2. Chittagong, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Forest Research Institute. [8]

X. References: [1] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Anisoptera.htm (Internet source)

[2] Dy Phon, 2000, Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia

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[3] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

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[4] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[5] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[6] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe (Internet source)

[7] ECOCROP: http://ecocrop.fao.org (Internet source)

[8] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[9] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.

[10] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

[11] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm(Inter net source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[12] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Durio zibethinus Murray.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Durio zibethinus Murray.] ³

Durio zibethinus Murray.

B. English name (s)

³

durian [2], civet fruit, civet-cat tree, thurian [7]

C. Synonym

³

Durio acuminatissima Merr. (1926) [5]

D. Other1

³

durian (trade name) [7] - du-yin (Myanmar) [7] - dulian

A. Latin name

(s)

(Philipines) [7] - Durianbaum, Zibetbaum (Germany) [7] ambetan, duren, kadu, durian (Indonesia) [7] - thouri่n (Laos) [7] - durian kampong, durian puteh (Malaysia) [7] - mduriani (E-Africa) [7] - rian, thurian (Thailand) [7] - s[aaf]u ri[ee]ng, sâù riêng (Vietnam) [7]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

FUern Source: [1]

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F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ thou reann [1], thu-réén [7] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malavales Family: Bombacaceae Genus: Durio Species: Durio zibethinus Source :[ 4]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]:Medium-sized to large evergreen tree with a height of 25-40 m [2] (-40 m [5], -45 m [7]) in dense lowland forest and 10-15 m [7] (10-20 m [3]) in orchards and backyards. The stem is buttressed with a DBH of 50-120 cm. [Bark]: The bark is dark red brown, peeling off irregularly. [Leaves]. The leaves are elliptic or spear shaped, 10-15 cm [7] (10-17 cm [5]) long, 3-4 cm [7] (3-4.5(12.5) cm [5]) wide, papery; base and apex pointed. Upper leaf-surface hairless, glossy, lower surface densely covered with silvery or golden scales. Secondary veins in about 15 pairs, distinctly looping near the margin, venation indistinct below. Leaf-stalks 1-1.5 cm long, angular. [Flowers]: The flowers are in clusters of round and flattened inflorescences. Flower-stalks 5-7 cm long. Outer flower leaves sack-shaped, flattened at the base, with a tube about 2 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter. Inner flower leaves white or creamy, spate-shaped, 5 cm long and 2 cm wide at the broadest part. Stamen (=male organ) white, 4 cm long, each filament with up to 12 kidney-shaped anthers dehiscing by a slit. Ovary (=female organ) egg-shaped, style slender, 4 cm long, stigma yellow. "In Thailand Durian flowers from March, after the end of the cool dry season. In monsoon climates flowering takes place late in the dry season. Bloom in one year may be more than a month earlier or later than in another year. In the humid parts of Malaysia and Indonesia trees often flower twice a year, again with much variation in timing from one year to the next. These observations suggest that floral development may be associated with a period of subdued extension growth" [5]. [Fruits]: The fruit varies greatly in size, often 15-25 cm in diameter, green to yellowish brown, with

white or yellow, soft, sweet, fragrant aril. [2, 5, 7]

I. Wood properties: The wood is rather coarse and light but durable with a dark red colored heartwood which has an energy value of 520 kJ/100 g. [4, 5]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 18°N to 18°S [4]. It grows successfully near the equator. The tree is strictly tropical and at extreme latitudes growth stops during the coolest months. Naturally it occurs in dense lowland forests but it is extensively cultivated in orchards and backyards of Southeast Asia.

[3, 4, 7, 8]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Durian grows at an altitude of 0-900 m a.s.l [4] (300-800 m [7]) with differences between the countries of cultivation: Up to 300 m in Thailand, 600 m in Sri Lanka, 700 m in the Philippines and 800 m in Malaysia. Rainfall regimes should be rather well distributed but can be bimodal or uniform with a mean annual rainfall of 1,500-2,000 mm [7] (1,200-3,500 mm [8], 2,000 - 4,000 mm [4]) and a dry

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

spines that are variable in length and shape. Seeds chestnut-brown, completely enclosed in a thick,

2

season length of 2-3 months [8] (0 - 5 months [4]). The mean annual temperature is 25-27ºC [4] (22ºC [7]), the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month 26-34ºC [4], the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month 21-30ºC [4]. Normal temperature range: 22-36 °C [2]. Absolute minimum temperature: > 15ºC [4]. Durian is shade demanding when young (30-50% shade until the seedling is 1 m high [7]), later it thrives in full sunlight. [2, 4, 7, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (A), Redlands (c), Lower Mekong Floodplain (E) [1]

M. soil and site conditions : The soil should be fertile, deep and moist but well-drained. The preferred texture is light sandy to medium loamy. A heavy texture should be avoided to limit losses from root rot. The soil pH ranges between 4.3-7.5 with an optimum between 5.0-6.5. It will not withstand saline soils. [2, 4, 7, 8]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The relative durable wood of D. zibethinus is used for sawn or hewn building timbers, heavy and light construction, exterior fittings, containers, woodware, industrial and domestic woodware,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

cheaper types of furniture, veneers, boats, vehicle bodies, wood based materials, plywood,

3

blockboard, laminated wood, particleboard, fiberboards and fuelwood. However, the general prospects of the species for timber are rather poor. [2, 4, 7] [Non-wood]: Durian is primarily cultivated for its fruit which is a good source of carbohydrates and also contains significant amounts of protein and vitamins B and C. Its rich pulp is eaten raw, cooked as a vegetable, frozen or dried for later use. It is also added to cakes, cookies, ice cream and other foods. Indonesians ferment the pulp for a side dish or mix the fleshy arils with rice and sugar to produce a local dish called 'lamping'. The seeds can be boiled or roasted and used as confections. The rind of the fruit is dried and used as fuel, particularly to smoke fish. Nectar and pollen are an important honey source. The honey characteristics are however not known. Several parts of the tree are used as medicine: The fruit is supposed to restore the health of humans and animals. "According to popular belief, sickness and even death may strike people who consume durian in conjunction with alcohol" [5]. [2, 5, 6, 7]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No Class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Naturally Durian occurs in dense lowland forests but nowadays it is extensively cultivated in the orchards and backyards of Southeast Asia. It is also a component in many Asian agroforestry systems and used as an ornamental tree. [4] [Management]: "Young trees benefit from 30-50% shade until they are 1 m high, at which time they should be gradually introduced to full sun. The trees are mulched lightly on a regular basis with application of animal manure, watered well during the growing season and only sparingly in winter to induce prolific flowering in spring and early summer. During the 1st years after planting, the trees are shaped by removing orthorpic limbs, including watershoots and by thinning out plagiotropic laterals. Trees bear fruit best on limbs that are more or less horizontal; upright limbs contribute more to tree size and height. Pruning dominant upright laterals to maintain 1 central leader is essential. The low productivity of durian orchards is attributed to low planting densities and a long juvenile phase. Intercropping with cocoa could improve productivity through several aspects of the cropping system, such as provision of shade". " It can also be intercropped with other crops, such as pineaple, langsat (Lansium domesticum), mangosteen (Garcinia magnostana), and rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum)" [2]. "If there is a prominent dry season, as in Chantaburi, the major durian production centre in Thailand, a dependable irrigation system is essential" [5]. [2, 5, 7] [Harvesting]: "The trees grow very tall and as it is difficult to judge maturity, it is common practice to wait until the fruit drops. In Thailand regular heavy crops greatly reduce tree vigour and picking is feasible. Selective harvesting is necessary and skilled pickers use a range of criteria to judge maturity.

disposition of the spines, the intensity of the odour emitted by the fruit, the sound heard when the fingertips are run through the furrows between the spines, changes in the fruit stalk, and flotation tests in water" [5]. [Yield]: In most of South-East Asia yields appear to be low and erratic, mainly as a result of poor flowering and inadequate fruit set. In Thailand these constraints are much less serious, but mean yields calculated from statistics on area and production in successive years are nevertheless low, ranging from 3.1 to 8.3 t/ha per year. Good orchards in Thailand and Perak, the durian centre in Malaysia, produce 10-18 t/ha per year, which is about 50 fruits per tree of 1.5-4 kg each" [5].

Q. Propagation : [Pollination]: "There is no evidence that the tree is wind-pollinated and it is believed that bats (mainly Eoncyteris spelea) transfer pollen when they visit the flowers for nectar. Honeybees are seen on the flowers too early in the afternoon to serve as pollinators. Natural pollination is possible only at night, the heavily fragrant flowers open in the late afternoon and are receptive from 5 pm until 6 am, but pollen begins to shed at 7 pm and other floral parts gradually fall, only the pistil remaining at 11 pm" [8].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Starting with the number of days lapsed since full bloom, they may also consider: colour, elasticity and

4

[Propagation]: "D. zibethinus is often propagated by direct sowing of seeds (or using planting stock [4]). Seeds are recalcitrant; they lose viability within 2 weeks. They tolerate accelerated drying to 41.5% moisture content if dried slowly, to 38.5% moisture content if dried rapidly. Excised embryos tolerated accelerated drying to 53.9% moisture content, and none survived further accelerated drying to 40.1% moisture content. There are between 60-70 seeds/kg. In Indonesia, D. zibethinus is largely raised from seed, although several methods for clonal propagation are practised. Vegetative methods of propagation were developed in the 1920s. Commonly used is the modified forked method of patch budding, in which a bud from a relatively young branch is grafted onto a 2-month-old seedling rootstock. The scions flower and fruit when about 4 years old. In commercial orchards, selections are propagated by grafting onto seedlings of the cultivated species or occasionally on those of D. malaccensis, a wild relative. Durian fruits in 7-8 years under orchard conditions. In Malaysia and Singapore, vegetative propagation by etiolation has been successfully done" [7].

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Durian is attacked by scale insects, leaf-eating caterpillars and beetles and trunk-/ branch borers. "Two nematode pests, Helicotylenchus spp. and Radopholus spp. have also been reported. In poorly drained soils, root rot or patch canker, caused by Phytophthora palmivora and Pythium complectens, can quickly kill trees shortly after the 1st symptoms appear" [7]. [Diseases]: "Associated with Pythium are secondary fungi such as Diplodia spp. and Fusarium spp. Corticium salminicolor causes pink disease, Phyllosticta durionis, (Phytophthora palmivora [4]) and Homostegia durionis cause black and brown leaf spots. Leaves also suffer severe damage due to

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Colletotrichum zibethinus and C. durionis. Die-back of budding is associated with Diplodia spp. and

5

Phomopsis spp. Cultural practices, rather than deployment of resistant varieties, have historically tackled these disease problems. The younger trees, which are somewhat resistant, have often been used as rootstock to in-arch older, diseased trees" [7]. [Protection]: A sheltered site is desirable to prevent branches laden with fruit from breaking in gusty winds" [8].

S. Conservation : No inforamtion available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Durian are grown in Kampot Province, Krong Prah Siharuk City and Kampong Cham Province (Memot District). [1]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Indonesia, Malaysia. [7] [Introduced]: Australia, Cambodia, Dominica, India, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Zanzibar. [7]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Fruit Properties]: "The arils represent 20-35% of the fruit weight, the seeds 5-15%. The flesh and seed are very nutritious, being rich in carbohydrates, proteins, fats and minerals. The flesh contains per 100 g edible portion: water 67 g, protein 2.5 g, fat 2.5 g, carbohydrates 28.3 g, fibre 1.4 g, ash 0.8 g, calcium 20 mg, phosphorus 63 mg, potassium 601 mg, thiamine 0.27 mg, riboflavine 0.29 mg, and vitamin C 57 mg. The energy value is 520 kJ/100 g. The odour of the fruit stems largely from thiols or thioethers, esters and sulphides" [5]. [Terminology]: "The genus name is derived from the Malay word 'duri' (thorn), referring to the spiny fruit" [7]. [History of cultivation]: "D. zibethinus was introduced into Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) by the Portuguese in the 16th century and was reintroduced many times later. It has been planted in the Americas but confined to botanical gardens. The 1st seedlings were sent from Kew Botanic Gardens, UK, to St Aromen, Dominica, in 1884" [7]. [Wildlife]: "In forests, elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses and other wild animals are attracted by the odor of ripe durians and compete for fallen fruit" [6].

W. Further readings5 : Kostermans AJGH, 1958. The genus Durio Adans. (Bombacaceae). Reinwardtia 4: 47-150. [4]

Corner, E.J.H., 1949. The durian theory of the origin of the modern tree. Annals of Botany 13(52): 367-414. [5]

Hasan, B.M. & Yaacob, O., 1986. The growth and productivity of selected durian clones under the plantation system at Serdang, Malaysia. Acta Horticulturae 175:55-58. [5]

Kostermans, A.J.G.H., 1958. The genus Durio Adans.(Bombac.). Reinwardtia 4(3): 357-460. [5]

Punsri, P., 1970. Observations on durian plantation. Puech Suan 6(4): 49-59 (in Thai). [5]

Punsri, P., 1972. Wild durian. Puech Suan 8(2): 17-22 (in Thai). [5]

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Burate Bamrungkarn, L., 1971. Durian plantation. Prae Pittaya Publishers, Bangkok (in Thai). [5]

6

Soegeng-Reksodihardjo, W., 1962. The species of Durio with edible fruits. Economic Botany 16: 270282. [5]

Soepadmo, E. & Eow, B.K., 1976. The reproductive biology of Durio zibethinus Murr. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 29: 25-33. [5]

Valmayor, R.V., Coronel, R.E. & Ramirez, D.A., 1965. Studies of floral biology, fruit set and development in durian. The Philippine Agriculturists 48: 355-359. [5]

Morton J. (1987) Fruits of warm climates; Durian. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=511892 [8]

Verheij E.W.M. Coronel R.E. (1991) PROSEA - Plant Resources of South-East Asia; 2 - Edible fruits and nuts. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=369920 [8]

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X. References:

7

[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [5] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [6] Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2005 © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. (CD-ROM) [7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source) [8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh

³

river red gum, red gum [1], Murray red gum, river gum [3], red river gum [6], long beak eucalyptus [12]

C. Synonym

³

Eucalyptus longirostris F. Muell. ex Miq., Eucalyptus rostrata Schltdl., nom. illeg. [4] , Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. var. brevirostris (F. Muell.) Blakely [12].

D. Other1

³

bach dan trang [2], b[aj]ch d[af]n [us]c, bajch dafn usc, pré;ng khchâl slök sâ [12] (Vietnam) - eucalyptus rouge (France) [3] - eucalipto rojo (Spain) [4] - eucalipto (Portugal) [4] Rotgummibaum [4], Roter Eukalyptus [12] (Germany) pyilon-chantha (Myanmar) [12] - ekaliptus (Indonesia) [12] yukhalip (Thailand) [12]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

1

eRbgxül;søwks Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ preng khchal slek sa [9] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Myrtales Family: Myrtaceae

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small to medium-sized, sometimes large evergreen tree, 20-45 m tall (-50m [3, 4, 12]) (-60 m [2]) with a DBH of 1-2 m sometimes more than 3 m. It can reach ages of 500 to 1,000 years. In open woodlands with a short, thick bole which supports a large, spreading crown. In plantations with a clear bole of up to 20 m with an erect, lightly-branched crown. Young branchlets red, slender and hanging. Ability to shed branches, especially in hot weather. Develops no resting buds, grows whenever conditions are favorable. Deep sinker roots grow down towards zones of higher water supply with high rates of hydraulic conductivity for a very effective water uptake. Seedlings can develop aerenchymatous roots to cope the lack of oxygen. [Bark]: Bark smooth white, grey, yellow-green, grey-green, or pinkish grey to red, shedding annually in strips or irregular flakes. Rough bark sometimes occupies the first 1-2 m of the trunk on E. camaldulensis var. camaldulensis. Juvenile leaves alternate, egg-shaped to broadly spear shaped, attached by a narrow stalk. [Leaves]: Adult leaves simple alternate, spear-shaped to narrowly spear-shaped, slightly discolorous, 8-30 cm x 0.7-2 (-3.5) cm, with a drip tip, green or grey-green, leaf stalk 12-15 mm long and slender. Central vein yellow in color. Lateral veins evident, forming a 30-60° angle with the central vein. Venules at margin very slender, evident. [Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, with 4-8 (7-11) flowers. Flower-buds egg-shaped-conical. Flowers white and medium sized, with small stalks. The time of flowering depends on locality. E.g. in Thailand, some provenances flower throughout the year on a range of sites, although autumn (September-

[Fruits]: Fruit hemispherical or egg-shaped, 5-8 x 5-8 mm (7-8 x 5-6 mm) with 3-5 exserted, triangular valves. Seeds small, cuboid abundant (15 per fruit) with two seed coats. Outer seed-coat yellow to yellow-brown in color, undercoat is brown-black (all other red gums have seeds with a single dark brown to black seed coat). [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Wood reddish with fine grains. Extraordinary hard but easy to saw and very dense after seasoning and is considered to be one of the worlds most durable woods. Wood density of 0.90.98 g/cm³ at 12% moisture content. Specific gravity r15 of wood from natural stands is 0.79 g/cm³. Growth rings generally indistinct and irregular in distance, easily curved, sometimes evident in E. camaldulensis, having some thick walled latewood cells. Vessels diffuse, (4-)7-9 (-11)/mm², predominantly solitary. It is difficult to work but polishes well and, after steaming, is well suited for bending. Resistant to termite attack. It burns without leaving ashes. [1, 2, 3, 6, 9]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Widely distributed in tropical zones, naturally 15-18 (-38)°S. Occurs mainly along watercourses, river valleys which are periodically flooded, on low mountains and hills.

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November) is the peak period.

[1, 2, 3, 9]

2

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Altitude range from 0 (30) to 600 m a.s.l. [1, 2, 3, 9] (0-1,500 m a.s.l [12]). High ecological amplitude, drought tolerant and inundation-tolerant for a short time. Adapted to monsoon climate and tolerant of periodic waterlogging but suited for arid and semiarid regions. Native to areas with winter and summer rains, with total annual precipitation of between 250-625 mm [3] (400-2,500 mm [4]). Can even survive a severe dry season with 4-8 or more dry months but it needs access to ground water to flourish completely. Mean annual temperature of warmest month is 29-35°C [3] (21-40°C [12]) , of coldest month 11-20°C [3] (3-22°C [12]). Moderately salt tolerant. [1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Suitable for growing and developing on many kinds of soil, including acid-sulphate soil. Prefers sandy to heavy alluvial soils, usually on calcareous soils, along the banks of streams and on the margins of salt lakes. Grows on light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Tolerates poor and dry soils, especially those low in mineral elements. Prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in saline soil. It needs sunny site conditions and cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry moist or wet soil and can tolerate drought.

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[4, 6, 7]

3

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: General-purpose timber. The major uses are the production of firewood and pulp for paper manufacture. The firewood burns very quickly because of the high oil content, it also produces a good-quality charcoal. Suitable for the production of veneer and plywood, particle board, hardboard and wood-wool boards, light or heavy construction, doors, window frames, interior finish, light and heavy duty flooring, cabinetry, railway sleepers, poles and posts, fences, cross-ties ship and boat building, underwater construction, vehicle bodies, joinery, boxes and crates, vats, carving, turnery, handles, sporting goods and agricultural implements. [1, 2, 6, 7] [Non-wood]: Leaves and twigs contain eucalypt oil which is an important product for pharmaceuticals, perfumes, soaps, detergents and is a powerful antiseptic which is used all over the world for relieving coughs and colds, sore throats and other infections. It is a common ingredient in many over-thecounter cold remedies. Oil is also used as a disinfectant and pesticide. Produces gum (kino) which often runs down the bole in large quantities and is used medicinally and for tanning. Also the bark of some species has tanning properties. The flowers produce good pollen and nectar for first quality

honey with heavy yields in good seasons. The honey is light gold and of reasonable density with a distinctive flavor. [1, 4, 6, 12] [Others]: Also planted as an ornamental, shade-, or shelter tree. Used for soil stabilization schemes and can also be planted in marshy land where it will help in draining the land to destroy potential breeding sites for mosquitoes. [1, 6]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [8]

P. Silviculture and management : In Cambodia E. camaldulensis is cultivated in plantations and as ornamental tree along the avenues. [9] [Plantations]: Sometimes planted as a reforestation tree. Plantations are established at 3 x 3-4 x 4 m regular spacings, sometimes 3 x 2 m. The most widely used provenance is the Murray Darling System from 25-37°S to 140-150°E. It hybridizes readily with E. alba and other eucalypts. Good weed control (usually a 1 m strip along each planting line) is essential and 4-5 weedings each year for 2 years may be necessary before site occupancy is achieved. Plantations grown for sawlogs will require thinning because trees tend to develop forks and steep branches. Eucalypt plantations are clear cut when the New Guinea, malformed trees and those with double leaders are removed at 5 years; the stand is then thinned to 250 trees/ha at 10 years, 100 trees/ha at 15 years and the final harvest is at 25 years. Coppices well. In the Philippines it responds well to moderate levels of both nitrogen (30g/plant) and phosphorus (30g/plant) when applied within 3 months after planting. Growth rates vary greatly between provenances and are heavily site-dependent. During the first 10 years, annual height growth up to 2 m and diameter growth up to 2 cm is possible. Early height growth may exceed 3 m per year for well-adapted provenances on favorable sites. Young trees are able to coppice for 2-3 rotations. However the coppicing ability of different provenances differs considerably. If grown for pulpwood, trees can be harvested after 6-10 years. Annual wood yields are around 20 - 25 m³/ha in Argentina, 30 m³/ha from Israel, 17 - 20 from Turkey in the first rotation, and 25 - 30 in subsequent coppice rotations. On poor arid sites yields are only 2 - 11 m³ on 14 or 15 year rotations. [1, 3, 4, 6] [Natural stands (Australia)]: "Dominant component of riparian communities. On lower levels of the floodplain, it is usually the only tree species present. On higher areas, it may occur in association with black box (Eucalyptus largiflorens) or coolibah (E. microtheca). It also lines the channels of sandy watercourses and creeks, commonly forming ribbon stands. Saplings thin out to form forests of straight-trunked trees. In more arid regions, where ribbon stands occur along creeks, the tree is more

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

rotation age has been reached, and subsequently replanted with nursery-raised seedlings. In Papua

4

gnarled and develops a large spreading canopy. This form also occurs throughout the region wherever the tree grows in isolation on deep fertile soils with a good moisture supply. One of the fastest growth rates for a tree and with a good water supply with a height of 12-15 m in a few years. Competition for moisture by ground vegetation and/or overstorey trees can influence seedling survival depending on seasonal conditions and flooding. The availability of moisture is greatly reduced within the zone of influence of trees (which may extend to 40 m around a mature tree). In the absence of competition seedling survival is 20-30 times greater. Seedlings are vulnerable during the establishment phase to heat stress and immersion. Seedlings cope with heat stress by developing roots giving good penetration into the sub-soil and accessing soil moisture. Seedlings also develop resilience early, allowing them to shed leaves in times of moisture stress and recover from axillary buds when moisture is again available." [7]

Q. Propagation : [Pollination]: Pollination is mainly carried out by insects, but is also undertaken by birds and small mammals. Fruit development and maturation time can be as short as four months. Production of the first seed crop may occur within three years of planting. [4] [Seed Production]: A full grown E. camaldulensis tree may produce a million or more seeds per year and may live and produce seeds for a century. No of seeds per kg = 666,000.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[5]

5

[Propagation]: Seeds are very light with 1.3-1.4 g/1,000 seeds and can be stored for several years when kept dry, cool and airtight. 1 kg of seeds yields 15,000-20,000 usable young plants. Propagation from seed and cuttings. Sowing of 50g seeds/m². Seeds germinate in 4-14 (-20) days. Seedlings are best raised in trays filled with sterile, fine, loamy sand. The trays should be kept in the shade for the first few days after sowing but light can be gradually increased to 50% full sunlight. Further growth requires full sunlight. They are transplanted after 1 month, when they are 3-5 cm tall and have 2-3 leaf pairs, to containers and nursery beds at a spacing of 10 x 10 cm. About 2 weeks before planting into the field, they should be gradually hardened off by reducing watering and removing shade. Vegetative propagation is also possible from branch cuttings, but these must be taken from trees less than 2 years old. Best results are obtained from cuttings containing a stem node and a segment of a leaf. Hormones such as indole-acetic acid, indole-butyric acid, or naphthalene-acetic acid will improve the success rate. The seedlings are ready for planting in the field when they are (20-) 25-30 cm in height, usually after 3-4 (5) months. They are mostly planted in a spacing of 2 x 2 m to 3 x 3 m in well prepared soil. Deep ploughing is advisable. “Seed requirements for eucalyptus sp. per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: Number of seeds per kg: 1,000,000. Planting spacing: 2 x 2 m. Net seedlings required per ha: 2,500. Rate of loss: 3,000 = 20% in planting site, 3,334 = 10% in transit, 4,168 = 20% at the nursery. 40% germination rate. Total seed requirement 0.01 kg” [10]. [1, 3, 10]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Various stem borers like Agrilus opulentus have caused damage in some areas. It attacks small suppressed trees and can kill them by girdling the stem. Clearing appears to benefit the plantation trees by removing alternative insect host plants. Application of dieldrin to the potting medium of seedlings reduces the damge caused by termites to the root system of young plants. [1] [Diseases]: Seedlings are susceptible to damping-off on the nursery. Fungicides can control this problem. [1] [Others]:"Seedlings are vulnerable during the establishment phase to heat stress and immersion. They cope with heat stress by developing roots giving good penetration into the sub-soil and accessing soil moisture. Seedlings can also develop resilience early, allowing them to shed leaves in times of moisture stress and recover from axillary buds when moisture is again available. Very fire sensitive and even low intensity fires may cause cambial injury. Fire kills regeneration and even mature trees are susceptible if the fire is intense enough since E. camaldulensis lacks a lignotuber. Fire will cause damage to the buttresses" [7]

S. Conservation :

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World distribution]: [Native]: Australia [4] [Introduced]: Europe (Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain); Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam, Yemen); Africa (Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Congo Democratic Republic, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Tunisia, Zambia, Zimbabwe);

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No information available.

6

Caribbean (Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago); Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua); North America (Mexico, USA); South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay); Oceania (Fiji) [4]

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Banks JCG, 1990. Flowering patterns in Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Proceedings international Eucalyptus symposium, Zhanjiang, China. [4]

Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, Hyland BPM, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984. Forest trees of Australia. Forest trees of Australia., Ed. 4:xvi + 687 pp.; 77 ref. [4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Booth TH, Pryor LD, 1991. Climatic requirements of some commercially important eucalypt species.

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Forest Ecology and Management, 43(1-2):47-60; 31 ref. [4]

Davidson J, 1993. Domestication and breeding programme for Eucalyptus in the Asia-Pacific region. UNDP/FAO Regional Project on Improving Productivity of Man-Made Forests Through Application of Technological Advances in Tree Breeding and Propagation (RAS/91/004-FORTIP). Los Baños, Philippines: FAO of the United Nations. [4]

Doran JC, Williams ER, 1994. Fast-growing Eucalyptus camaldulensis clones for foliar-oil production in the tropics. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 73(4):261-266, 273-274; 18 ref. [4]

Doran JC, Wongkaew W, 1997. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. In: Faridah Hanum I, van der Maesen LJG, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 11. Auxiliary Plants. Leiden, the Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers, 132-137. [4]

Eldridge K, 1995. Breeding plan for Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Thailand 1995 revision. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Division of Forestry. [4]

Evans J, 1992. Plantation forestry in the tropics: tree planting for industrial, social, environmental, and agroforestry purposes. Plantation forestry in the tropics: tree planting for industrial, social, environmental, and agroforestry purposes., Ed. 2:xv + 403 pp.; 32 pp. of ref. [4]

Holmgren M, Pettersson P, 1995. Evaluation of long-term growth trials of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus tereticornis in Laos, South-East Asia: a minor field study. Working Paper International Rural Development Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, No. 282:24 pp.; [ISRN SLU-IRDC-WP-282-SE]; 15 ref.

Midgley SJ, Eldridge KG, Doran JC, 1989. Genetic resources of Eucalyptus camaldulensis.. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 68(4):295-308; 35 ref. [4]

Pinyopusarerk K, Doran JC, Williams ER, Wasuwanich P, 1996. Variation in growth of Eucalyptus camaldulensis provenances in Thailand. Forest Ecology and Management, 87(1/3):63-73; 26 ref. [4]

Pinyopusarerk K, Luangviriyasaeng V, Rattanasavanh D, 1996. Two-year performance of Acacia and Eucalyptus species in a provenance trial in Lao P.D.R. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 8(3):412423; 21 ref. [4]

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[4]

8

Pukittayacamee P, Saelim S, Bhodthipuks J, 1993. Seed collection period for selected tree species in Thailand. Seed collection period for selected tree species in Thailand., 2 pp. [4]

Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ, 1993. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees: major commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees: major commercial timbers., 610 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. PROSEA NUGI 835.]; 817 ref. [4]

Wasuwanich P, 1989. Phenological investigation of Australian tree species in field trials in Thailand. Unpublished report. Bangkok, Thailand: Royal Forest Department. [4]]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1992: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (1) Timber trees: Major commercial timbers.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2] Nguyen et al, 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

9

[3] Lamprecht, H., 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ

[4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[5] Schmidt, L., 2000: Guide to Handling of Tropical and Subtropical Forest Seed. CTSP-DANIDA.

[6] Plants for a Future: http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Eucalyptus+camaldulensis&CAN=COMIND (Internet source)

[7] CSIRO: http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/WfHC/Eucalyptus-camaldulensis/ (Internet source)

[8] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[9] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[10] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM).

[11] Petri, Mathias (DED) 2006: Own observations.

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[12] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=760 (Internet source).

10

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith ]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith ] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith [1]

³

forest red gum [1], blue gum, red irongum [2], flooded gum, grey gum, siver ironbark, slaty gum, stinking gum [10], forest river gum, horn-cap eucalyptus, mysore hybrid, mysore-gum, Queensland blue gum [11].

C. Synonym

³

Eucalyptus subulata Cunn. ex Schauer (1843), Eucalyptus insignis Naudin (1891), Eucalyptus umbellata (Gaertner)

Domin

(1928)

non

Desf.

[1],

Eucalyptus

tereticornis var. pruiniflora (Blakely) Cameron, Eucalyptus umbellata auct. non (Gaertn.) Domin, Eucalyptus umbellata var. media Blakely, Eucalyptus umbellata var. pruiniflora Blakely [2]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

D. Other1

1

³

forest red gum [1], mungurra [3], mysore gum [11] (Trade name)

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

eRbgxül;søwktUc Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ preng khchal slek toch [2] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Myrtales Family: Myrtaceae

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium-sized to tall forest tree, 18–46 m tall [4] (20-50 m [2], -45 m [3, 11]), dbh up to 1.5 m [3] (-2 m [1, 2], -1.8 m [4, 11]). Crown large and open or fairly dense, begins often close to the ground. Trunk is usually straight and sometimes clear for more than half of the total height, with the major branches steeply inclined. Strong taproot and long lateral roots. It does not develop resting buds and grows whenever conditions are favourable. [Bark]: The bark is smooth, whitish, peeling off annually in irregular thin sheets or large flakes, becoming mottled with white, grey, or blueish patches. The trunk may also carry a short stocking of rough, dark grey to black dead bark. [Leaves]: Juvenile leaves first opposite, then alternate, egg-shaped, slightly discolorous, irregullary veined. Adult leaves alternate, narrowly spear-shaped to spear-shaped, 10-20 cm x 1-2.5 cm [1] (1221 cm x 1.2-2.5 cm wide [3]), with drip tip, leaf stalk 13-24 mm long and hairless. [Flowers]: The flowers are umbellate, 5–12 [3, 4] (7-11 [1]), spreading on equal stalks on 5–7 mm. Umbels grow out of the leaf axils. [Fruits]: The fruits (=capsules) are hemispherical, globe- or egg-shaped, 6–9 mm x 8–10 mm [4] (5-7 mm x 4-8 mm [1], 6 x 6 m [3]) with 4 or 5 strongly exserted valves. Seeds many, tiny, 1 mm long and broad, shiny dark brown to black. [1, 2, 3, 4]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is dark red, hard strong, tough, heavy, very durable but difficult to work.

season but can be easily worked with all types of tools. Similar to Cedrela wood. [3, 4]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Most extensive latitudinal range 9-38°S [2] (6-38°S [3, 4]) of any species in the genus. Occurs naturally along the coast and on adjacent hills and plains of eastern Australia. Most populations occur within 100 km of the sea but the distribution extends further inland. Eucalyptus tereticornis also occurs naturally in Papua New Guinea. [2, 3, 4]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Altitude range 0-800 m in New Guinea, 30-1000 m in Australia [3] (0-1,000 m [1,11], 0-1,800 m [4, 7]). Ranges from tropical very dry to moist through warm temperate dry to moist forest life zones. Native to regions with summer and winter rains with total annual precipitation of 500-1,500 mm [3] (5003,000 mm [2], 500-3,500 mm [11]) with up to 7 dry months [3, 4] (-8 dry months [2]) and can tolerate annual precipitation of only 50-200 mm. Mean annual temperature 14-24°C [3] (16-25°C [4]). Mean maximum temperature of the warmest month 27°C [4] (22-32°C [3]), mean minimum temperature of

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Resistant to termite attack. Specific gravity r15 is 0.95 g/cm³ [3] (0.75–1.05 g/cm³ [4]). It is difficult to

2

the coolest month 7°C [4] (8-12°C [3]). Moderately salt- and frost-tolerant with 0–15 frosts a year [4] (fairly sensitive to frost [2]). It is also relatively fire-resistant. [1, 2, 3, 4, 7]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers moist but not waterlogged soils (grows also on seasonally waterlogged clays in forested wetlands [2, 11]), loamy sands, alluvial loams and gravels with good nutrient availability. A certain degree of salinity is tolerated and a neutral or slightly acid pH is preferred. However acid soils with a low pH are not suited. [2, 3, 4, 11]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Suitable for heavy construction, railway sleepers, piles, poles, fenceposts, mining timber (life span of up to 50 years), trench linings, boxes, wharfes, fuelwood, charcoal, pulpwood, hardboard, fiberboard and particle board. [1, 2, 3, 4, 11] [Non-wood]: A tannin is extracted from wood and bark. Eucalypt oil, cineole (45%) is the principal leaf oil which is used for many medical purposes. The oil yield percentage by fresh weight is 0.9-1.4%

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11]. The wood itself contains 0.5% essential oil [11]. The tree is also a major source of pollen and

3

nectar, producing a caramel-flavoured honey. [1, 3, 11] [Others]: Effective for protecting river banks from soil erosion. Used as an ornamental tree in Cambodia. Also used for shelterbelts, shade and in apiculture (bee-keeping). [1, 2, 3, 7]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [6]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: E. tereticornis naturally grows scattered in open forest, savanna woodlands or alluvial flats of the seasonally-dry tropics. It is used in plantation forestry, agroforestry and for reforestation. In Cambodia it occurs usually along the avenues. Fast-growing, versatile and strongly coppicing. In silviculture E. tereticornis is not distinguishable from E. camaldulensis. [Management]: "Provenance trials are necessary before untertaking large scale planting. Like in the case of E. camaldulensis, provenances from northern part of its range are considered to be characterised by more vigorous growth" [3]. "Spacing and cropping systems are very variable - from

community plantings around homes, villages and roads to closely spaced commercial plantations and depend on the end-products required. Rotation varies with site quality and management objectives. Eucalyptus tereticornis is usually grown on a short rotation and clear-felled at an age that maximises production of logs of optimum size for a particular end use. This is usually small-diameter material suitable for pulpwood, mining timber, charcoal or fuelwood. When pulpwood and firewood are the principal objectives on a rotation of 5-6 years, a spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m is considered desirable in India. Also in India, wider spacings of 4 m x 2 m or 6 m x 1.5 m are recommended when crops are to be grown between the tree rows during the first three years, otherwise plantings are done at closer spacings e.g. 2 m x 2 m, 2.6 m x 2.6 m and 3 m x 1.8 m" [2]. In young plantations, trees tend to develop forks and steep branches, which have to be removed. Plantations regenerate from coppice at least 3 times. The season of felling affects coppice regeneration. "Felling during the dry season delays sprouting and increases the risk of the stump drying out. Felling by saw to give a cleanly-cut short stump with minimum bark damage is best" [2]. [Yield]: The yield depends primarily upon humidity. The highest yields have been reported on the borders of canals and under conditions of irrigation. "In irrigated plantations in Africa under good conditions, the tree will yield 20 to 25 m³/ha/yr during the first 15 years; the yield then decreases to 10 to 15 m³ per ha per year unless the trees are cut down for sprouting" [5]. "On good sites in Argentina, an MAI of 18–30 m³/ha/yr is obtainable, but in poor sites in India, the MAI may be closer to 3. Trees which are 5 years old, spaced at 1,670 trees/ha, average a basal area of 18 m²/ha. Brazil (national average yield 18 m³/ha/yr)"[4]. At rotations of 5-7 years in the best sites in DR Congo it produces annual volume increments of 18-25 m³/ha. On poor sites in Uruguay 6m³/ha in 16 years rotation [3].

esp. during the first 6 to 12 months, with tapioca (yucca) in India during the first 2 years)" [5]. [1, 2, 3, 5, 7]

Q. Propagation : [Generative Propagation]: One tree produces 150-350g seeds per year at age of 3 years [2] (3-6 years in plantations [3]). Eucalyptus tereticornis is usually propagated from seed. There are an average of 642,000 viable seeds/kg (540,000 seeds/kg [3], 285,000-800,000 seeds/kg [5]). No presowing treatment is required. Rapid germination under moist and warm (25°, 30° or 35°C optimal in the laboratory) conditions in the presence of light. Germination is epigeal. Viability of seed stored dry (5-8% moisture content [2], 60% rel. humidity [5]) in air-tight containers in the refrigerator (3-5°C [2], 4°C [5]) will be maintained for more than 10 years. "Seed requirements for eucalyptus sp. per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: Number of seeds per kg: 1,000,000. Planting spacing: 2 x 2 m. Net seedlings required per ha: 2,500. Rate of loss: 3,000 = 20% in planting site, 3,334 = 10% in transit, 4,168 = 20% at the nursery. 40% germination rate. Total seed requirement 0.01 kg" [8]. [Vegetative Propagation]: Also easy to be propagated vegetatively. Grafting has been successful with good results achieved using apical rind grafting in nursery beds. "Micro-propagation of the tissues from bud, shoot or apex of stem has been carried out in China and India. In China this material has a 54% regenerative capability up to 10 months of age under in vitro or non-in vitro conditions.

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[Agroforestry]: "In agroforestry, it has been used in combination with crops (e.g. with corn in Pakistan,

4

Regeneration by stump plants has been successful in India. In vitro clonal propagation of the hybrid, E. tereticornis x E. camaldulensis, has been carried out in India [2]. "Regeneration by sprouting has been used and can be done three or four times in 10-year shifts" [5]. [Nursery Technique]: Seeds may be sown under shade either directly to nursery containers or first in germination beds with seedlings transferred to containers at the second leaf-pair stage, or about 6 weeks from sowing. They do not require pretreatment to germinate [2]. Under controlled conditions, seeds germinate well at alternating temperatures of 20 to 30°C with 8 hours of light [5]. Excess moisture in the substrate should be avoided to prevent attacks by fungi and bacteria during the germination process. They are commonly placed in hermetic- or well sealed plastic bags, metallic or glass fiber containers. The seedlings can be grown in a variety of potting mixes including peat/coarse sand/sandy loam, peat/vermiculite, and peat/vermiculite/perlite [2] or sterilized, fine, river sand [5]. Slow-release fertilizers may be added to the potting mixture at the rate of 1.75-4.3 kg/m³ [2] or liquid fertilizer applied as the seedlings grow in the nursery. "Seedlings are planted out in the field when they reach a height of about 25 cm, 3 to 5 months after sowing. This should coincide with the onset of the wet season in tropical countries. [2, 3, 5, 8].

R. Hazards and protection : E.tereticornis is not greatly threatened by pests and diseases. [3] [Pests]: Various stem borers like Agrilus opulentus have caused damage ins some areas. It attacks Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

small suppressed trees and can kill them by girdling the stem. Clearing appears to benefit the

5

plantation trees by removing alternative insect host plants. Application of dieldrin to the potting medium of seedlings reduces the damge caused by termites to the root system of young plants. [1, 2] [Diseases]: Susceptible to damping-off and other fungal pathogens during the nursery phase. Regular application of a fungicide or strict attention to hygiene, reducing watering and shade, and allowing good ventilation can control this problem. [1, 2] [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : It occurs especially along the Phnom Penh - Kampong Speu Road. [7]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Papua New Guinea, Australia [1] [Introduced]: Europe (Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain), Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam, Yemen) ; Africa (Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Comoros, Congo Democratic Republic, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe), Caribbean (Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago), Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama), North America (Mexico, USA), South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela),

Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu) [1, 2, 4]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Boer E, 1997. Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith. In: Faridah Hanum I, Maesen LJG van der, eds. Auxiliary plants. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 11, 137-140. [2]

Booth TH, Pryor LD, 1991. Climatic requirements of some commercially important eucalypt species. Forest Ecology and Management, 43(1-2):47-60; 31 ref. [2]

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Oceania (Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Pacific Islands (US), Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon

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Davidson J, 1988. Breeding eucalypts in tropical countries. In: Newman RL, ed, Proceedings International Australian Bicentennial Forestry Conference, Albury-Wodonga, Australia, 25 April-1 May 1988. Canberra, Australia; Institute of Foresters of Australia. Vol. 5: 1-21. [2]

Davidson J, 1993. Domestication and breeding programme for Eucalyptus in the Asia-Pacific region. UNDP/FAO Regional Project on Improving Productivity of Man-Made Forests Through Application of Technological Advances in Tree Breeding and Propagation (RAS/91/004-FORTIP). Los Baños, Philippines: FAO of the United Nations. [2]

Hartley A, 1977. The establishment of Eucalyptus tereticornis on tailings from the Bougainville copper mine, Papua New Guinea. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 56(3):239-245; 13 ref. [2]

Holmgren M, Pettersson P, 1995. Evaluation of long-term growth trials of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus tereticornis in Laos, South-East Asia: a minor field study. Working Paper International Rural Development Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, No. 282:24 pp.;

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[ISRN SLU-IRDC-WP-282-SE]; 15 ref.

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[2]

Khan JA, Akhtar P, 1973. Mechanical properties of Eucalyptus tereticornis. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 23(4):325-343; 8 ref. [2]

Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1997. Variation in growth and disease resistance of Eucalyptus species and provenances tested in Vietnam. IUFRO Conference on Silviculture and Improvement of Eucalypts, 1997, Salvador. Proceedings. Vol. 1. Tree improvement strategies. Colombo: EMBRAPA, 416-422. [2]

Pukittayacamee P, Saelim S, Bhodthipuks J, 1993. Seed collection period for selected tree species in Thailand. Seed collection period for selected tree species in Thailand., 2 pp. [2]

Tewari DN, 1992. Monograph on Eucalyptus.. Monograph on Eucalyptus., xv + 361 pp.; [17 colour pl. (unpaginated)]; 87 pp. of ref. [2]

Verma RK, Gurumurthi K, 1997. Improvement of important parameters of yield in Eucalyptus Tereticornis by selection and clonal propagation. IUFRO Conference on Silviculture and Improvement of Eucalypt, 1997, Salvador. Proceedings. Vol. 1. Tree improvement strategies. Colombo: EMBRAPA, 240-244. [2]

Wang H, Zang D, 1997. Provenance tests of Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. in China. IUFRO Conference on Silviculture and Improvement of Eucalypts, 1997, Salvador. Proceedings. Vol. 1. Tree improvement strategies. Colombo: EMBRAPA, 305-309. [2]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1992: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (1) Timber trees: Major commercial

[2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[3] Lamprecht, H., 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ.

[4] Purdue University: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_tereticornis.html (Internet source)

[5] RNGR: http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-03.1218/file/. (Internet source)

[6] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

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timbers.

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[7] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[8] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM)

[9] Petri, M. (DED): Own observations.

[10] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=1026&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source)

[11] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=817

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Internet source)

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Fagraea fragrans Roxb., Fagraea fragrans Pit]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Fagraea fragrans Roxb., Fagraea fragrans Pit] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Fagraea fragrans Roxb.[1], Fagraea fragrans Pit [3]

B. English name (s)

³

ironwood [1]

C. Synonym

³

Fagraea cochinchinensis A. Chev., Fagraea gigantea Ridley, Fagraea sororia J. J. Smith, Fagraea wallichiana Benth. [1], Fagraea peregrine Blume [7]

D. Other1

³

pangsoma (Bangladesh) [1] - tembesu (Brazil) [1] – ambinaton, kayu tammusu, ki badak (Indonesia) [1] - manpa (Laos) [1] - ahnyim, anan (Myanmar) [1] - tembusu hutan, tembusu padang, tembusu tembaga (Malaysia) [1] - dolo, susulin, urung (Philippines) [1] - tembusu, tembusu hutan,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

tembusu padang (Singapore) [1] - kankrao, man pla,

1

thamsao (Thailand) [1] - tembesu, tembusu, trai , trai nam bo (Vietnam) [1, 7]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

taRtav Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tatraou [1], ta trao [3], ta trav [5] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Gentianales

Family: Loganiaceae Genus: Fagraea Thunb. Species: Fagraea fragans Roxb. Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium sized to large tree up to a height of 20 m [3] (-25 m [1], -30 m [3], 8-30 m [7], -55 m [2]). Occasionally large trees (up to 55 m tall) are described as a separate species (F. gigantea Ridley). Diameter up to 135(-250) cm DBH [2] (-150 cm [3, 7]). Trunk sometimes with small to large buttresses up to 2.5 m. [Bark]: The bark is deeply irregularly fissured, yellowish-grey to dark brown, inner bark brown to yellow and up to 1 cm thick. Yellowish white sap. Twigs are slender, almost cylindrical, hairless, nodding, and yellowish-brown when dry. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple, oblong to spear-shaped, or opposite-egg-shaped, 4-15 x 1.5-6 cm [2] (7-12 x 1.5-5 cm [3, 4]), hairless and leathery, with an evident midrib below. Leaf tip short to long broadly pointed. Secondary veins 5-16 pairs, barely visible or invisible above but visible below. [Flowers}: Terminal flowering stalks bear 20-30 clustered flowers. Flowers white and very aromatic, outer flower leaves 5, fused into a bellshaped tube, 0.7-2.3 cm long [3] (1.5-2.5 cm [4]). Inner flower

Ovaries (= female flower parts) are naked and exceed the stamens. Flowering April to July, fruiting occurs from July to November [1]. "According to FIPI (1996), flowering occurs from April-June in Cambodia, with fruits from July – November. However, the Forestry Magazine (FA, 1997) states that flowering occurs in February-March and fruiting from May-June" [3]. [Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is broadly ellipsoid, globe-shaped, or nearly globe-shaped, 0.7-1 x 0.4-1 cm, green turning orange or red, tip rounded or pointed. One seed per fruit, 0.1-0.2 cm, roughly angled. [1, 2, 3, 4, 7]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Medium weight to heavy hardwood. Considered as a first-class turnery timber. Heartwood pale yellow to yellow, darkening upon exposure to deep golden-brown, orange brown or pale brown, not clearly demarcated from the paler sapwood. It is fine-grained, very strong, durable outside and inside water and resistant to rot. Growth rings, when present are marked by tangential bands of denser fibrous tissue. Wood density 0.51-0.93 g/cm³ [2, 8] (0.85-1 g/cm³ [3]) at 15% moisture content. The proportion of high quality sawn timber is high in this species due to very good stem forms. However, a defect in F. fragrans timber is the frequent occurrence of knots due to the

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

leaves 5, unequal in size. Stamens (= male organ) 5, exceeding the length of the flower leaves.

2

existance of branches. Good nailing properties and easy to saw. It can be peeled into 1.5 mm thick veneer at a 90° peeling angle without pretreatment showing good results. Good gluing properties by using formaldehyde. The heartwood is very difficult to impregnate satisfactorily, even by using pressure. The sapwood is permeable to preservatives. Wood contains 63% holocellulose, 46-47% alpha-cellulose, 24-29% lignin, 11-13% pentosan, 0.1-0.7% ash and 0.3% silica. The solubility of the wood is 1.8-2.5% in alcohol benzene, 2.4% in cold water, 4.9-6.9% in hot water and 13.1-13.5% in a 1% NaOH solution. "In Indonesia drying takes 3 months to season 20 mm thick boards from 40% to 14% moisture content, whereas 13 mm thick boards have been reported to require 4-6 months in Malaysia dry. Test in Malaysia at 17% moisture content showed the following mechanical properties: modulus of rupture is 95-107 N/mm cubic, modulus of elasticity 14,000-14,100 N/mm cubic, compression parallel to grain 52-62.5 N/mm cubic, compression perpendicular to grain 8-9 N/mm cubic, compression shear 10.5-12.5 N/mm cubic, cleavage radial 37 N/mm, cleavage tangential 40 N/mm and janka side hardness 6,540-6,970 N. At green condition, modulus of rupture is 88.5 N/mm cubic, modulus of elasticity 14,715 N/mm cubic, compression parallel to grain 51.5 N/mm cubic, compression shear 5-5.5 N/mm cubic, cleavage radial 58.5 N/mm, cleavage tangential 58.5 N/mm, janka side hardness 5,050 N and janka end hardness 6,180 N. At 15% moisture content, modulus of rupture is 73.5 N/mm cubic, modulus of elasticity 12,360 N/mm cubic, compression parallel to grain 52.5 N/mm cubic, compression shear 6-6.5 N/mm2, cleavage radial 49.5 N/mm, cleavage tangential 54 N/mm, janka side hardness 3,985 N and janka end hardness 5,445 N. The rates of shrinkage from green to oven dry 3.4% radial and 6.6% tangential" [8].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1, 2, 3, 8]

3

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 23°N to 5°S [1]. Occurs generally in light primary and secondary evergreen or mixed deciduous forest in humid or seasonally inundated locations, but also along roadsides, streams, or rivers and along paddy fields. In freshwater swamp forest it is found in association with Melaleuca spp. "In Cambodia, it is usually found in semideciduous forests and rarely in dense or open forests" [3]. [1, 2, 3, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Grows at 20-1,500 m a.s.l [1] (below 800 m a.s.l. [3, 7]) with a mean annual rainfall of 800-3,000 mm in a bimodal rainfall regime. Tolerates a dry season length of 3-4 months [1]. Mean annual temperature: 20-30ºC [1]. Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 30-36ºC [1]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 15-25ºC [1]. Absolute minimum temperature: >5ºC [1]. Light demanding tree species. Fire resistant due to corky bark. Able to suppress lalang grass (Imperata cylindrica). [1, 3, 7, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Central Lowlands (d), Lower Mekong Floodplain (E), Southern Annamites (g). [3] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Kampong Thom (X:539779 Y:1444098), Kampong Thom (X:535833 Y:1429922), Kampong Thom (X:550649 Y:1421984), Kampong Thom (X:534774 Y:1406109), Kratie (X:587956 Y:1388382), Kampong Thom (X:524985 Y:1401082), Kampong Thom (X:529218 Y:1445532), Kratie (X:594835 Y:1425953), Koh Kong (X:336601 Y:1292074), Kampong Thom (X:544576 Y:1432832), Kampong Thom (X:532794 Y:1398585), Pursat (X:290036 Y:1323858), Koh Kong (X:380635 Y:1241779), Kratie (X:575828 Y:1457121), Preah Vihear (X:505989 Y:1532493), Kampong Thom (X:548465 Y:1434598), Koh Kong (X:329784 Y:1266328), Koh Kong (X:285400 Y:1307780), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650), Preah Vihear (X:511900 Y:1534350), Mondul Kiri (X:715845 Y:1352093). [3]

M. soil and site conditions : Grows well on poorly aerated and seasonally waterlogged, compact clay soils, and on poor sandy or shallow sandstone soils along streams or rivers. Soil texture: light, medium, heavy. It can be planted on poor or degraded but well drained soils and grasslands where it surpresses the grass growth. Tolerates shallow soil. Growth is satisfactory on poor and eroded soils.

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Used for ships, telephone/electrical poles, housing interiors, fuelwood (high quality), round wood, transmission poles, posts, piles, building poles, sawn or hewn building timbers, heavy construction, beams, light construction, carpentry/joinery, engineering structures, bridges, railway sleepers, woodware, wood carvings, coffins, furniture, charcoal (high quality), barrels, chopping blocks. "In Khmer culture, Fagraea fragrans pit is used for making doors and doorframes, particularly in some historic temples" [3]. [1, 2, 3, 8] [Non-wood]: The bark is used as a febrifuge, twigs and leaves as medicine to treat dysentery. Used for revegetation and land reclamation due to ability to suppress dense cover of weeds, including Imperata cylindrica and Gleichenia linearis. Shade- or shelter-tree in parks and along roads. [1, 2, 3, 7, 8]

O. Cambodian wood classification : Luxury [3, 6]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1, 2, 3]

4

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Occurs generally in light primary and secondary evergreen or mixed deciduous forest in humid or seasonally inundated locations, but also along roadsides, streams, or rivers and along paddy fields. In freshwater swamp forest it is found in association with Melaleuca spp. It also occurs naturally as a pioneer in burnt-over areas and "lalang" (Imperata cylindrica) grasslands. "In Cambodia, it is usually found in semideciduous forests and rarely in dense or open forests" [3]. [Establishment]: Plantations in Java have been established with a 2.5-3 x 1 m spacing. [Management]: F. fragrans is a vigorous pioneer forming light canopies in planted and natural stands. It is a useful reforestation- and plantation species due to its high adaptability, good coppicing abilities and ability to tolerate weeds. For effective weed control it should be mixed with shade tolerant species. Mixing with Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. subsp. bancana (Miq.) Bloembergen has been very successful. Double stems should be removed, thinning every 5 years below and every 10 years above the plantation age of 30 years is recommended. Pruning promotes height growth. Large trees are frequently hollow. 15 years rotation for pole-plantations, 100 years for sawn timber production. [Yield]: Mean annual diameter increment 0.8 cm (37 year old trial plantation in W-Java), 0.6 cm (20 year old plantation on Sabah on podsolic soil), 0.7 cm / 0.8 cm (38 / 29 year old plantation in Peninsular Malaysia). Mean annual volume increment of timber plantations in Java are 6.1 m³/ha. Mean timber volume in natural stands in Indonesia is 1.3 m³/ha. [1, 2, 3, 8]

Q. Propagation : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

The seed is mature when the fruits become dark brown. Seeds can be stored for 6 months, but they

5

lose their viability very soon when kept inside the fruit. Fresh seeds have a viability of 65-80%, can be stored for 6 months and germinate in 15 days to over 2 months [8] (-3 months [2]). One kilogram contains 5 mio. seeds [2, 8] (4 mio. [5]). Immediate sowing also gives good results. The seed should be mixed with fine sand and sown under light shade. It needs protection from ants. Watering by spraying. Seedlings are transplanted into nursery beds after 2 months when 5-7 cm high. Planted into field when 30-45 cm high. Planting of stumps leads to multistemmed tree. Vegetative propagation is done by cuttings and tissue culture. "However, cuttings with several internodes taken from the branches of mature trees failed to root. But when taken from coppice shoots they rooted successfully. In-vitro propagation proved possible from rooted cuttings, but failed using explants from 10-year-old trees [8]". "Seed requirements per ha for open plantations in Cambodia: No. of seed per kg: 4,000,000. Planting spacing = 2.5 x 2.5 m. Net seedling requirements per ha: 1,600. Rate of loss: 1,920 = 20% in planting site, 2,134 = 10% in transit, 2,668 = 20% at the nursery. Germination rate 40%. Purity = 95%, Total seed reqirement 0.003 kg" [5]. [1, 2, 3, 5, 8]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Known insect pests are Bunaea alcinoe, Reticulitermes flavipes. In general it is not attacked by ambrosia beetles, but debarked logs may be infested. [1, 2] [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: The sapwood is liable to staining. Thus it should be treated with anti-stain chemicals immediately after sawing. [2]

S. Conservation : Generally this species is not endangered because it is distributed over large areas and behaves like a pioneer tree species. "Because this wood is very valuable and in high demand, the species is overexploited and in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not implemented. Its distribution is scattered and its habitats are being destroyed by forestland conversion and selective, illegal logging. The number of mature trees has been reduced significantly and it is now difficult to find significant sources of germplasm. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined Fagraea fragrans Pit as a priority species, in need of immediate protection and conservation intervention. This species is protected by Cambodian Forestry Law No.35" [3].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Koh Kong, Pursat, Stung Treng, Kratie, Kampong Thom, Mondulkiri and Preah Vihear. [3]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Brunei, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand Vietnam [1] [Introduced]: Asia (Singapore, Sri Lanka), Africa (Nigeria), Carribean (Jamaica), South America (Brazil) [1, 3]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2, 3]

6

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Toxicology]: "The sap of this tree may cause some irritation to the skin" [1]. [Taxonomy]: "Many botanists split F. fragans into two distinct species: F. gigantea as a large canopy tree with a more regulary fissured bark and leaves with an unulating margin and only 5-6 not 8 pairs of secondary veins. F. wallichiana as a smaller tree with broader leaves, larger flowers and larger more ellipsoid fruits" [2]. [History]: "In the early 20th Century, F. fragrans and Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binnend. were both exploited as 'ironwood' in much the same way in South Sumatra (Indonesia) and resources were then already qualified as being depleted" [8].

W. Further readings5 : Hildebrand, J.W., et al. 1995. Fagraea Thunb. In Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2). Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp 234-242. [8]

X. References:

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

7

[2] PROSEA, 1995: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers.

[3] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[4] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[5] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree Planting. (CD-ROM).

[6] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[7] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng: Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[8] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=18199 (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Garcinia mangostana L]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Garcinia mangostana L] ³

Garcinia mangostana L

B. English name (s)

³

mangosteen [6]

C. Synonym

³

Mangostana garcinia Gaertn. [26]

D. Other1

³

mangostan, mangis, mangostán, palo de cruz (Spanish);

A. Latin name

(s)

mangoustan, mangoustanier, mangouste, mangoustier (French); manggis, (Cambodia); (Indonesia, Malaysia); mankhud (Laos); mingut (Burma); mangkhut (Cambodia); manggustan, manggis (Philippines); mangkhut (Thailand); cay mang cut, mang cut (Vietnam) [1,4,6].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

mgÇút Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ mangkhut [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Kingdom: Viridiplantae

1

Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Theales Family: Guttiferae [11] Gunus: Garcinia Species: Garcinia mangostana L. [4]

Source :[ 1 ; 4 ; 11 ; 27]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A beautiful tree, up to 20 m high, however does not exceed 10 m in cultivation, diameter 0.25-0.35 m. Crown conical, trunk straight, thick angular branches; poorly deveolped root system [1]. A tree, 10-20 m tall [4]. A tree, 6-25 m tall, with a straight trunk,symmetric branches, pyramid-shaped crown [6]. Tree, 10-20 m tall, with low set branches and densely foliated crown [13].A small evergreen tree, slow growing, erect with a pyramidal crown, 6-25 m high [26]. [Bark]: Brown-black, thick, rugose, exuding a pale yellow latex when cut [1]. Bark dark-brown or nearly black, flaking, the inner bark containing yellow, gummy, bitter latex [26]. [Leaves]: Opposite, ovate, elliptic or oblong, apex obtusely acuminate, base acute, obtuse or rounded; margin entire; relatively thick and coriaceous, deep green or yellowish-green above, shining, yellowish-green below, glabrous on both surfaces; 12-23 cm long and 4-10 cm wide. The petiole is 1.5-2.0 cm long, swollen at the base, subtending an axillary bud [1]. Opposite, with short stalks, oblong or elliptical, 15-25 cm long and 7-13 cm wide, thick leathery, entire, sharply pointed tip, smooth and olive green above and yellow green below, with a pale green central nerve, evenly spaced, many prominent side-nerves [6]. Opposite, thick, leathery, elliptic-oblong, 15-25 cm long dark green [13]. Leaves opposite, short stalked, ovate-oblong or elliptic, leathery and thick,dark-green, slightly glossy above, yellowish-green and dull beneath, 9-25 cm long, 4.5-10.0 cm wide, with conspicuous, pale midrib. New leaves rosy [26]. [Flowers]: Hermaphroditic or unisexual by abortion of the stamens, solitary or paired at the branch tips. They have 4 sepals and petals, 16-17 small stamens with long filaments and 2-celled fertile

alone or in pairs at tip of branchlets, about 5.5 cm in diameter, with 4 sepals and 4 yellow-green petals with red edges [6]. Flowers 4-6 cm wide, pink, creamy-white in the centre, with 4 petals and sepals each, in forkingly branched inflorescences. Flowers opening in the afternoon, sepals falling rapidly. Often female flowers alone or flowers with sterile anthers are formed, hence fruit develop without fertilization [13]. Flowers 4-5 cm wide, fleshy, may be male or hermaphroditic on the same tree. The former are in clusters of 3-9 at the branch tips; there are 4 sepals and 4 ovate, thick, fleshy petals, green with red spots on the outside, yellowish-red inside. Stamens many, fertile and sterile.The hermaphrodites are borne singly or in pairs at the tips of young branchlets; their petals may be yellowish-green edged with red or mostly red, and are quickly shed [26]. [Fruit]: Generally solitary or in pairs. The fruit is a round berry, 5-7 cm in diameter, with a persistent calyx and surmounted by a persistent stigma.The violet-purple pericarp is very thick (0.8-1.0 cm) and leathery. It encloses a variable number (5-7) of aril segments which may or may not surround the seeds. The pericarp is not edible on account of the very bitter, pale yellow latex. It is the aril segments which form the edible part of the fruit. The snow-white flesh has an exquisite taste, considered by some to resemble grapes and peaches, and a scent of great delicacy (1). The mangosteen fruit is a globose, smooth berry, 4-7 cm in diameter, dark purple when ripe, with the petals remaining on the fruit. The "skin" is about 0.9 cm thick, purple with 0-3 big seeds embedded in

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

anthers, a sessile subglobular 4-8 locular ovary with a sessile stigma [1]. Flowers on short, thick stalk,

2

the glossy white "flesh" [6]. Fruit up to 9 cm in diameter, purplish brown, with large woody petals at the base and 5 to 8 fold flatly attached remains of stigmas. The fruit is a berry with a wine-red fibrous pericarp, nearly 1 cm thick, containing 5-8 fleshy-juicy segments functioning as seed cover but frequently not containing any seed. Flesh very tasty [13]. Fruit a globose berry, capped by the prominent calyx at the stem end, with 4-8 triangular, flat remnants of the stigma in a rosette at the apex, dark-purple to red-purple and smooth externally, 3.4-7.5 cm in diameter. The rind is 6-10 mm thick, red in cross-section, purplish-white on the inside, contains bitter yellow latex and a purple staining juice. There are 4-8 triangular segments of snow-white, juicy, soft flesh( actually the arils of the seeds). The fruit may be seedless or have 1-5 fully developed seeds. Seed obovoid-oblong, somewhat flattened, 2.5 cm long, 1.6 cm wide that cling to the flesh. Flesh slightly acid, mild to distinctly acid in flavour, acclaimed to be exquisitely luscious and delicious [26]. Flowering only once a year with the excepton of southern Sri Lanka. Fruit must be harvested while the pericarp is still soft. To avoid damage to falling fruit it must be picked by hand using ladders and baskets [1]. At low altitudes in Sri Lanka, the fruit ripens from May to July; at higher elevations, in July and August or August and September. In India, there are 2 distinct fruiting seasons, one in the monsoon period (July-October) and another from April through June. Puerto Rican trees in full sun fruit in July and August; shaded trees, in November and December [26].

I. Wood properties: The wood is heavy, black and durable; its specific gravity is close to 1 or over 900 kg/m³. It is used for construction and cabinet work, but its application is limited by its small size [1]. The wood is dark red ,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

heavy, very strong and used in carpentry [6]. In Thailand, all non-bearing trees are felled, so the wood

3

is available but usually only in small dimensions. It is dark-brown, heavy, almost sinks in water, and is moderately durable [26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Mangosteen originated in the Sunda Islands and Malay Pensinsula and does not occur often outside far-eastern countries. It stems originally from the tropical rain forests of the east coast of Malaysia [13]. It is cultivated on a fairly important scale in Indochina, Java, Sumatra, Malay Pensinsula, the Philippines, the Moluccas, and Sri Lanka [12].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Mangosteen requires an equatorial climate, with special conditions of temperature, humidity and soil which only certain tropical countries can offer. This explains its rather weak distribution. Factors essential for its cultivation are tropical temperatures and abundant rain distributed regularly throughout the year. The lower parts of Sri Lanka receiving the southwest monsoon rains are particularly favourable. G. mangostana must be sheltered from wind and sun [1]. A short dry spell stimulates flowering [6]. The mangosteen is ultra-tropical. It cannot tolerate temperatures below 4 deg C, nor above 38 deg C. It is limited in Malaysia to elevations below 450 m. In Madras it grows from 75-1 500 m above sea-level. It ordinarily requires high atmospheric humidity and an annual rainfall of at least 1 270mm/ m² and no long periods of drought. The tree needs good drainage and the water

table ought to be about 1.8 m below ground level. The mangosteen must be sheltered from strong winds and salt spray, as well as saline soil or water [26]. The following figures describe the range of climatic conditions favourable for this species: Altitudinal range: 0-1000 m a.s.l. Mean annual precipitation between 1300-2500 mm/m² with uniform distribution over the season; dry season duration between 0 to 2 months. The mean minimum temperature of the coldest month may be as cold as from 5 - 20ºC, the absolute minimum temperature should stay above 5ºC [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : G. mangostana grows well in clay soils; soils must be moist but without stagnant water [1].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Usable in construction and cabinet work but applications are severely limited by small dimensions [1]. [Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh, conserves loose valuable aroma; an acceptable jam can be cooked. If picked unripe they can be transported without loss [1]. The best table fruits are those with the highest number of stigma lobes at the apex, for these have the highest number of fleshy segments and the

The fleshy segments are sometimes canned, but they are said to lose their delicate flavor in canning, especially if pasteurized for as much as 10 minutes. Tests have shown that it is best to use a 40% syrup and sterilize for only 5 minutes. The more acid fruits are best for preserving. To make jam, in Malaysia, seedless segments are boiled with an equal amount of sugar and a few cloves for 15-20 minutes and then put into glass jars. In the Philippines, a preserve is made by boiling the segments in brown sugar, and the seeds may be included to enrich the flavour. The seeds are sometimes eaten alone after boiling or roasting. The rind is rich in pectin. After treatment with 6% sodium chloride to eliminate astringency, the rind is made into a purplish jelly [26].

Medicinal use concerns fruit eaten against bilious fever, as a purgative and an anti-dysenteric [1,4,6]. From the rind a phytosterine and tannin (15% content) can be extracted while oil from the seeds (which contain 45%) is occasionally obtained [13]. The fruit rind contains 7-14% catechin tannin and rosin, and is used for tanning leather in China. It also yields a black dye. The fruit hulls show antifungal and anti-protozoal activity [26]. The sliced and dried rind is powdered and administered to overcome dysentery. Made into an ointment, it is applied on eczema and other skin disorders. The rind decoction is taken to relieve diarrhoea and cystitis, gonorrhoea and gleet and is applied externally as an astringent lotion. A portion of the rind is steeped in water overnight and the infusion given as a

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

fewest seeds. The numbers always correspond [6]. Mangosteens are usually eaten fresh as dessert.

4

remedy for chronic diarrhoea in adults and children. Filipinos employ a decoction of the leaves and bark as a febrifuge and to treat thrush, diarrhoea, dysentery and urinary disorders. In Malaysia, an infusion of the leaves, combined with unripe banana and a little benzoin is applied to the circumcision wound. A root decoction is taken to regulate menstruation. A bark extract called "amibiasine", has been marketed for the treatment of amoebic dysentery [26].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : A slow growing fruit bearing little fruit before reaching age 10 or 15; reaches full production when 20 years old. Extreme care must be exercised when establishing mangosteen in a new country, regardless of the method of propagation used. Once separated from the fruit seeds lose their viability after a few days, after a few weeks if remaining in the fruit [1].When leaving the nursery seedlings are planted into holes with fertile humic soil. Spacing should be 10m x 10 m. Soils with high organic content are superior to frequent fertilizing since the plant can only absorb small quantities of nutrients [1]. A spacing of 10.7-12.0 m is recommended. Planting is preferably done at the beginning of the rainy season. Pits 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.3 m are prepared at least 30 days in advance, enriched with organic matter and topsoil and left to weather. The young tree is put in place very carefully to avoid root injury and given a heavy watering. Partial shading with palm fronds or other means should be maintained for 3-5

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

years. Indian growers give each tree regular feeding with well-rotted manure, (45-90 kg) and peanut

5

meal (4.5-6.8 kg) total, per year. Some of the most fruitful mangosteen trees grow on the banks of streams, lakes, ponds or canals where the roots are almost constantly wet. However, dry weather just before blooming time and during flowering induces a good fruit-set. Where a moist planting site is not available, irrigation ditches should be dug to make it possible to maintain an adequate water supply and the trees are irrigated almost daily during the dry season. In Malaysia and Sri Lanka, it is a common practice to spread mulch of coconut husks or fronds to retain moisture. It has been suggested that small inner branches be pruned from old, unproductive trees to stimulate bearing. Cropping is irregular and the yield varies from tree to tree and from season to season ranging from 6 years in Central America to 12-20 years in Thailand. The first crop may be 200-300 fruits. Average yield of a full-grown tree is about 500 fruits. The yield steadily increases up to the 30th year of bearing when crops of 1 000-2 000 fruits may be obtained. In Madras, individual trees between the ages of 20-45 years have borne 2 000-3 000 fruits. Productivity gradually declines thereafter, though the tree will still be fruiting at 100 years of age [19,26].

Q. Propagation : Seeds are recalcitrant and should be stored in their fruit at room temperature, or in moist peat moss, even these will lose viability in 5 days after removal from the fruit, though they are viable for 3-5 weeks in the fruit. Viability can be maintained for 1-2 months in moist storage at 20 deg C, storage temperature of 10 deg C is damaging. Seeds packed in lightly dampened peat moss, sphagnum moss or coconut fiber in airtight containers have remained viable for 3 months. Only 22% germination has been realized in seeds packed in ground charcoal for 15 days. Soaking in water for 24 hours expedites and enhances the rate of germination. Generally, sprouting occurs in 20 to 22 days and is complete in 43 days [26]. "Seeds are spread on open ground or planted in large polythene bags in which case the seedlings are transplanted before reaching 60 cm height or when they have 6 pairs of leaves. Cuttings are taken from well-ripened branches. They root easily in sand in a closed container, bottom heat as well as the use of hormon powder will increase the take. Mangosteen can also be grafted on the stock of related species of the same genus such as Garcinia xanthochymus Rock. f., a resistent and vigorous species. Budding also gives good results if the buds are green, soft, non-petiolate and 2.5-4.0 cm long. On leaving the nursery the young plants are planted in holes previously filled with fertile humic soil. At first the plants must be shaded, e.g. with palm leaves. Great care must be taken that the last pair of young leaves does not wither as this will result in a severe setback or even death. The spacing should be 10 m by 10 m. To increase use of the land intercropping with vegetables or other plants should be practiced during the first 10 years. Arrow-root or ginger could be used. The mangosteen profits from the manuring and tending of the interplanted crops. The species is obviously able to benefit from high

It pays to keep the content of organic matter high and spreading a thick cover of mulch or manure under the trees is good practice. Pruning is limited to the removal of dead material or dying branches and the suppression of long shoots or slender branches in the interior of the crown [1]."

R. Hazards and protection : A leaf-eating caterpillar in India may perhaps be the same as that which attacks new shoots in the Philippines and which has been identified as Orgyra sp. of the tussock moth family, Lymantridae. A small ant, Myrnelachista ramulorum, in Puerto Rico, colonizes the tree, tunnels into the trunk and branches, and damages the new growth. Mites sometimes deface the fruits with small bites and scratches. Fully ripe fruits are attacked by monkeys, bats and rats in Asia. In Puerto Rico, thread blight caused by the fungus, Pellicularia koleroga, is often seen on branchlets, foliage and fruits of trees in shaded, humid areas. The fruits may become coated with webbing and ruined. In Malaysia, the fungus, Zignoella garcineae, gives rise to "canker"–tuberous growths on the branches, causing a fatal dying-back of foliage, branches and eventually the entire tree. Breakdown in storage is caused by the fungi Diplodia gossypina, Pestalotia sp., Phomopsis sp., Gloeosporium sp., and Rhizopus nigricans. A major physiological problem called "gamboge" is evidenced by the oozing of latex onto the outer surface of the fruits and on the branches during periods of heavy and continuous rains. It does not affect eating quality [26].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

concentrations of nutrient material and soils with a high content of organic matter seem to be the best.

6

S. Conservation : Not a threatened species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : In the hot and humid regions with near-equatorial climates of Southeast Asia; native in Malaysia, Molucca Islands of Indonesia; introduced to Australia, India, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Caribbean Islands, and a number of countries in central America and West and East Africa [12,26]

V. Miscellaneous4 : The edible parts represent about 30% of the weight of the fruit. The composition is as follows: water

84.9%

protein

0.5%

fat

0.1%

minerals

0.2%

carbohyd. 14.3% The seeds contain 45% fat [1]. Other products: Mangosteen twigs are used as chewsticks in Ghana. The rind of partially ripe fruits

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

yields a polyhydroxy-xanthone derivative termed mangostin, also ß-mangostin. That of fully ripe fruits

7

contains the xanthones, gartanin, 8-disoxygartanin, and normangostin. A derivative of mangostin, mangostin-e, 6-di-O-glucoside, is a central nervous system depressant and causes a rise in blood pressure [26].

W. Further readings5 : Almeyda N, Martin FW, 1976: Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise 1. In: The Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.). US Agricultural Research Service South Region. Asai F, Tosa H, Tanaka T, Iinuma M, 1995: A xanthone from pericarps of Garcinia mangostana. Phytochemistry, 39(4):943-944; 8 ref. Hutton W, Cassio A, 1996: Tropical Fruits of Malaysia and Singapore. Republic of Singapore: Periplus Editions. Normah MN, Nor-Azza AB, Aliudin R, 1995: Factors affecting in vitro shoot proliferation and ex vitro establishment of mangosteen. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 43(3):291-294; 11 ref. Nakasone HY, Paull RE. 1998: Tropical fruits. Crop Production Science in Horticulture No. 7 CAB INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, UK.

National Academy of Sciences, 1975: Underexploited tropical plants with promising economic value. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.; USA Richards AJ. 1990: Studies in Garcinia, dioecious tropical fruit trees: the origin of the mangosteen (G. mangostana L.). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 103(4): 301-308. Othman Y, Suranant S, 1995: The Production of Economic Fruits in South-East Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press. Tirtawinata MR, Othman Y, Veevers-Carter W, Sidharta A, 1995:mm/ m²mm/ m² Fruit of Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: Mekar Unggul Sari.

X. References:

1) FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.

4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

8

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

27)

9

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale , Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale , Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale .[4], Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f.[2]

B. English name (s)

³

Haldu (English, Indian)[17]

C. Synonym

³

Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f. ex Brandis [2]; Nauclea cordifolia Roxb. [17] Caesalpinia dasyrhachis Miquel

D. Other1

³

hnaw nhan -ben, nhing pen, (Burma); khvao, (Cambodia); khao, thom (Laos); kwao, tong lueang, tum kwao (ThailandNorth); gáo lá tim , giáo vàng, (Vietnam) [2,4,17]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

xVav Source: [-]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khvao [16], khwaw [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Rubiales Family: Rubiaceae Gunus: Haldina Ridsd. [17) Species: Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. Source :[ 2 ; 11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Deciduous, medium to large-size tree, up to18-30 m high, attaining 70-100 cm diameter. Trunk straight, cylindrical, branches horizontal, buttresses up to 1.5 m high [2]. A tree, 7-20 m tall [4]; deciduous tree with straight, slightly fluted trunk and open, rounded crown [5]. A deciduous, small to medium-sized, sometimes fairly large tree up to 30 (-40) m tall; bole branchless up to 20(-25) m, up to 110 (-150) cm diameter, with buttresses and often fluted [17]. [Bark]: Greyish-white, longitudinally fissured, rugose, split, 1-2 cm thick. Young branchlets quadrangular, ash-grey, hairy, terete and glabrous when old. [2,4] . Bark pale-brown to dark grey smooth or scaly and finely fissured; inner bark pink to dark brown. Bark surface scaly, dippled, greyisch-brown to reddish-brown, inner bark dark red to brown. The terminal vegetative, flattened bud is a reliable identification mark [2, 4, 17]. [Leaves]: Leaves simple, opposite, leaf blade orbiculate or elliptic, base cordate, 10-30 cm long, 8-20 cm wide, dark green and glabrous above, pale green and slightly tomentose beneath. Simple, opposite, entire; leaf-blade orbiculate or elliptic, base cordate, stipules appressed, markedly keeled, 10-30 cm long, 8-20 cm wide, dark green and glabrous above, pale green and slightly tomentose beneath. Lateral nerves 5-8 pairs venules horizontal, nearly parallel. Petiole slender, 4-9 cm long, canaliculate above. Stipule oblong curved, 10-15 mm long, tomentose [2]. Leaf 8-20x6-16 cm, rarely to 30x20 cm, opposite in 2 rows (decussate), circular or broadly ovate with short tip and heart-shaped base. Young leaves pale green with pink stalks, mature leaves thin with scattered rough hairs above and denser soft hairs below. 5-7 basal veins, 5-8 pairs of side-veins. Stalks 3-8 cm, slender. Young

1.2-1.8 cm [5]. Leaves opposite,simple, entire, broadly ovate, cordate at base, stipule appressed, markedly keeled [17]. [Flowers]: Inflorescence head-shaped, 1.8-2.5 cm in diameter when blooming, pedicel 3-8 cm long. Flower minute, yellow. Calyx tube cylindrical, lobes 5, oblong, valvate, slightly enlarged and rounded at tip,strongly imbricate at apex. Corolla hypocrateriform, gamopetalous with 5 petals, lanceolate, 1 mm long. Stamens 5, inserted in the corolla-gorge, filament very short, anther mucronate at the tip. Ovary bi-locular, inferior, style slender, exserted, 1 cm long, stigma small, ovoid to subglobose, with many ovules. Flowers in an axillary, stalked, yellowish, head 5-merous, heads (2-4-10) from an axil; interfloral bracteoles present [2,17]. [Fruit]: A capsule, dehiscent by 2 fissures from the base; in head-like infructescence, free, splitting into 4 parts, with persistent central axis and calyx [2,17]. Seeds 6-8, 2.5-3.0mm long, 2-winged at two ends [2]. Seed ovoid, slightly bilaterally compressed, narrowly winged. Seedling with epigeal germination, cotyledons leafy [17]. Flowering in May-June, fruiting in August-November.[2]

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twigs squarish with flat, rounded buds, which are protected by a pair of pale, green ridged stipules,

2

I. Wood properties: Wood of H. cordifolia is medium heavy and hard, with specific gravity of 550-650 kg/m³ [2] to 570-895 kg/m³ [26] at 15% m.c. Heartwood yellow to yellow-white when fresh, turning pale-yellow or reddishbrown when exposed [17]. Sapwood yellow-white, distinguished from the yellow heartwood, but quickly turning brown in open air [2]. Grain fairly straight, occasionally interlocked or spiral. Texture is fine and even, the wood shiny. Growth rings not always distinct, vessels moderately small, solitary, occasionally in radial multiples of 2-3, in small clusters, visible only with a hand lens (10x). Parenchyma scarce, paratracheal vasicentric, apotracheal diffuse, and diffuse-in-aggrates not visible even with a hand lens. Rays moderately fine, ripple marks absent. Shrinkage is high, the wood has a slight tendency to check and split during air-drying. Hence, kiln drying seems advisable. The wood is not very stable in use. However, it is easy to work by hand and with machine tools. It should be planed with care to avoid picking single fibers up. It polishes well and takes a high lustrous finish. [2,17] Wood technological testing of the mechanical properties in Malaysia gave the following results: modulus of rupture 84-86N/mm², modulus of elasticity 8,900-9215 N/mm² compression parallel to grain 41.5-44.0 N/mm², shear 8.5-9.5 N/mm², Janka side hardness was 5070 N and Janka end hardness 6275 N [17,26). The wood is moderately durable, preservative treatment by pressure impregnation of both sapwood and heartwood is easy. The heartwood is resistant to fungi, the sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetle attack. The gross energy value of the wood is 18 500 kJ/kg [17,26].

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J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation :

3

Haldina cordifolia occurs from India, through Sri Lanka, Southern China, Burma, Indochina, Thailand to Vietnam, but it is rare in Peninsular Malaysia. Haldina is a monotypic genus.The species H. cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. is found in dense, deciduous forests in the lowlands and lower hills in ts area of distribution, but is rare in Peninsular Malaysia [17]. In Vietnam it is common in secondary tropical evergreen or semi-deciduous forests [2].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : H. cordifolia is found frequently but scattered in deciduous lowland forests between 700-800 m a.s.l., where average annual rainfall amounts to 1500 -2500 mm; usually growing along rivers or transitional areas between swampy wetlands and dry loamy areas, which are flooded for short periods. H. cordifolia

grows

associated

with

Terminalia

nigrovenulosa,

Stereospermum

sp,

Sterculia

lychnosphora, Buchanania arborescens, Choerospondias axillaris and Hopea odorata [2]. In Burma and Thailand it is often associated with teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) [2,17]. The average geophysical factors are as follows: Elevation 0-1000 m a.s.l., mean annual precipitation 750-2500 mm/ m² during summer, values for minimum and maximum temperatures are given as above minus 2ºC and not over plus 43ºC , respectively. The area of distribution extends approximately from 30º N-5º S [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

not determined

M. soil and site conditions : A.cordifolia thrives in lowlands or foot hills on transitional sites between swampy, periodically flooded, and dry loamy sites [2]. It grows best in well-drained ground, such as the lower slopes of hills, and on alluvium, provided drainage is good. It has a massive root system in proportion to its size, which makes it very resistant to drought. Nevertheless it is prone to browsing by domestic and wild animals and it is not fire resistant [12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is rather hard, specific gravity from 550-650 to 590-895 kg/m³ , grain fine and easy to work; used in construction and furniture making, in India also as construction timber. Can be used for veneer-cutting [2] as well as for sawing into boards [4]. The wood is used in house construction, doors, window frames, stairs and flooring, but also for boat building, furniture, implements and face veneer. It is also suitable for fine turnery work, for rulers, pencil slats, bobbins, boxes and piano keys. The wood is reported as acid-resistant making it suitable for laboratory bench tops and similar uses [17,26]. Debarking immediatelly after felling is recommended for preventing fungal attack of the sapwood. In India girdling before the harvest is practiced to improve wood quality as trees can slowly air-dry before being actually harvested and sawn. The wood of H. cordifolia is usually traded locally and rarely exported because available volumes are quite low. In most producing countries the statistically

[Non-Wood]: Infusions cooked from the roots are used in traditional medicine to cure diarrhea and dysentery(4). In Burma foliage is being used as ground cover in teak (Tectona grandis) plantations, but it makes also acceptable animal fodder [12]. I

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : As young plants are fragile, bare-rooted planting stock is not recommended. Stumps of 2-year old seedlings, however, are very successful as planting stock. One-year-old seedlings can be planted at 2x2 m spacing. Wildlings have also been used successfully. Although light-demanding, H.cordifolia needs light shade in the first few years. Good drainage and weeding after planting are essential for optimum development of the plants. Protection from grazing and bare soil are essential for the establishment of natural regeneration. H. cordifolia coppices easily [26]. Trial plantations have been established in Nigeria and South Africa, but results are unknown [17,26]. In agroforestry trials its leaves and leaf extracts proved to have a serious allelopathic effect on associated crops. H. cordifolia

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assessed production is small [17]

4

coppices easily and might be a promising species for for planting in areas with a seasonal climate because of its favorable wood properties. Trial plantations using available information from India are needed to confirm this potential [17].

Q. Propagation : Haldina cordifolia can be raised from seed, but direct seeeding failed as the seed is minute (about 11 million seeds/kg). Ripe seed heads should be collected before seeds are shed, when the dry separation of seeds from the heads is easy. Seeds can be stored for at least one year in an air-tight receptacle. During the first year germination capacity increases to 13% due to after-ripening. A pretreatment by soaking the seeds in water for 12 hours and then drying them slightly to facilitate sowing has been recorded. As with other fine seeds they should be sown in very fine sand, covered very lightly with fine soil or sand and watered by spraying frequently but lightly. They should be protected from direct sunlight and rain. Mulching the seed beds proved better than using raised screens for this purpose. Damping-off has been observed in the nursery. When 2-3 months old, seedlings are pricked out into containers.

R. Hazards and protection :

There are a number of noxious agents damaging Haldina trees. However, so far none of them has been singled out as a real threat to the survival of plantations. The following insect pests have been identified, but there is no information how they damage the tree or its parts: Acalolepta cervina, Antitrygodes cuneilinea, Aristobia approximator, Cephonodes hylas, Cephonodes picus, Dirades adjutaria, Epiplema quadricaudata, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Episparis liturata, Gonodontis clelia, Gonodontis clelia, Lyctus, Pantoporia silenophora

5

kanara, Parotis marinata, Rhodoneura nitens [12]. Fungus diseases are: Cercocladospora adinae, Cercospora adiniana [12].

S. Conservation : not an endangered species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Southern and Southeastern Asia, India, Sri Lanka, southern China, Burma, Indochina, Thailand, almost native, in Nigeria, South Africa, introduced [26]..

V. Miscellaneous4 : Haldina is related to Adina and a group of 4 small genera, including Adinauclea, Metadina, and Pertusadina in the tribe Naucleeae. It can be recognized particularly by the flattened terminal vegetative bud, the lateral flower heads and the appressed, keeled stipules.

H. cordifolia might be a promising timber for planting in areas with a seasonal climate because it has favorable wood properties. Trial plantations using the information available from India are needed to confirm its potential. [17]

W. Further readings5 : Cheksum Tawan, 1998. Haldina Ridsd. In Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. & Prawirohatmodjo, S. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(3). Timber trees: Lesser-known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp 278-280.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen, N.C. et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997 788 pp.

4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

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17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Hevea brasiliensis (Willd, ex A. Juss.)]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Hevea brasiliensis (Willd, ex A. Juss.)] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Hevea brasiliensis (Willd, ex A. Juss.)

³

rubber [12], Brazilian rubber tree, hevea, Para rubber tree [9], rubber wood, caoutchouc tree [7]

C. Synonym

³

Siphornia brasiliensis Willd. ex A. Juss [1], Siphonia brasiliensis H. B. & K.[7]

D. Other1

³

yegoma zaf (Ethiopia) [7] - kyetpaung (Myanmar) [7] – caoutchouc, caoutchouc de para, h้v้a (France) [7] Parakautschukbaum (Germany) [7] - kayu getah, kayu karet, pokok getah para (Indonesia) [7] - jaang (Laos) [7] - kayu getah, pokok getah para (Malaysia) [7] - caucho (Spain) [7] mpira (E-Africa) [7] - katoh, yang phara (Thailand) [7] - cao sau (Vietnam) [7]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

1

ekAs‘U Source: [11]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ Kaov Sou [11] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Geraniales Family: Euphorbiaceae Genus: Hevea Species: Hevea brasiliensis

Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Hevea brasiliensis is a semi-deciduous tree which reaches in plantations a height at maturity of 25 m [7, 12] (10-20 m [3], -40 m [2, 13], -20 m tall [9]) but wild trees of over 40 m [7] have been recorded. The stem normally has a poor, tapered form, but in certain varieties a straight stem is possible and it can reach a DBH of 35 cm [13] (50 cm [7] girth of 2.6–3.3 m [2]). It has no buttresses, is unbranched up to 10 m [7], sometimes more and develops a much-branched leafy canopy. The taproot is well developed. [Bark]: The bark surface is smooth, hoop marked, grey to pale brown, the inner bark pale brown, with abundant white latex. [Leaves]: Leaves are alternate, consisting of three leaflets, which are opposite egg-shaped or broadly elliptical to spear-shaped with a pointed leaf-tip and base and entire margin. Normally they are 10– 15(-50) cm x 3–6(-15) cm in size [2]. The leaves have stipules and leafstalks which are 7.5–10(-70) cm long [2]. [Flowers]: The sweet scented and small monoecious flowers occur numerously in hairy inflorescences (=panicles). They are greenish-yellow, creamy yellow or green, female flowers occur on top of the inflorescence and are 10-12 mm long [13], the more numerous male flowers occur rather at the base of the inflorescence with a length of 8-10 mm [13]. Inner flower leaves (=petals) are absent, the outer flower leaves form a calyx which is 5-lobed [9] and covered with fine white hair

its color from green to brown. Seeds are ellipsoidal, flattened on one or two sides, shiny, greyish or pale in color, with dark coffee-colored spots that are oval. Seeds are variable in size, 2.5–3 cm long [9] and 2-3.5 cm in diameter [13], weighing 2–4 g [13] each. They consist of a thin hard shell and a kernel. Seeds may be ejected for up to 15 m by the explosion of mature fruits, but otherwise have only few ways of dispersal. Seed collection takes place from July to September in India [2]. Seeds average 180 per kg [13]. [2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The heartwood is pale cream, often with a pink tinge when fresh, darkening on exposure to pale straw-colored or pale brown, not clearly demarcated from the sapwood. The grain is straight to shallowly interlocked. Texture is moderately coarse but even. Sawn rubberwood often shows black stripes with the inclusion of bark material, the result of poor tapping practices with damaged or removed cambium; in freshly sawn wood there is a characteristic and distinct smell of latex. Rubber wood can be treated by pressure process using a mild schedule 5 kg/cm² pressure and 1 hour period [8]. It can be treated by soaking process at a moisture content near the fiber saturation point. The wood is only moderately durable when exposed to the elements. [2, 7, 8]

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[Fruits]: The fruit (=3-lobed, 3-seeded ellipsoidal capsule) has a diameter of 3 to 6 cm [13] and change

2

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 12°N to 35°S [1] (successful cultivation from 15°N to 10°S [7]). Rubber grows naturally in the tropical evergreen rainforest of the Amazon Basin, often in periodically flooded areas, but larger trees are found on the well-drained plateaus. In its natural habitat, it forms a part of the middle storey of the tropical forest. Throughout the tropics it is cultivated in big scale plantations, especially in South- and South-East Asia. In Cambodia, Kampong Cham and Kampong Thom Province is famous for its many rubber tree plantations. [1, 7, 11]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : The tree grows on slopes ranging from 0-70% [13] at elevations from sea level to 1,200 m [13]. However, planting above 400-500 m a.s.l. is not recommended because trees at higher altitudes tend to be smaller, with less vigorous growth, and with reduced production of both latex and timber. The optimum ranges from 0 to 450 m a.s.l. [1] (300-500 m [5]). Suitable climate zones range from 'subtropical wet' (without frost) to 'tropical dry' to 'tropical wet forest life zones'. Rubber is reported to tolerate an annual precipitation of 1,020 to 4,290 mm [2] (mean of 24 cases = 2,450 mm [2], 1,5003,000 (max. 4,000) mm [7, 13], 1,500-3,600 mm [1]). Optimal ranges are between an evenly distributed annual precipitation of 1,900 to 2,600 or more [2]. Rubber can also tolerate drier conditions 3-4 months long [13] (2-3 months [7], 0-3 months [1]) or occasionally slight drought, but does not flourish in areas with pronounced dry seasons and temperature fluctuations to which it responds by shedding leaves. Relative humidity should not exceed 70-80% [13]. An annual mean temperature of 23.1 to 27.5°C [2, 5] is suited best (23-33°C [12], 22-30°C [13]). "Areas with a high cloudiness index

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and frequent appearance of the dewpoint are not desirable, and the species requires 1,500 to 1,800

3

hours of annual sunshine. Winds greater than 8 m per second can damage or topple the tree" [13]. "However, more wind-resistant clones do exist" [7]. [1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 12, 13]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Hevea brasiliensis thrives best in deep well-drained and well ventilated loamy soil which is at least 1 m deep [13], covered by natural undergrowth or leguminous cover-crop as an erosion protection. It prefers acid soil but tolerates a wide pH range of 4–8 [2] (4.0-6.5 [13], 4.3-8.0 [5], mean of 18 cases = 5.7 according to Duke, 1978 [2]). However, suitable soil types range from clay-loamy soils to clay soils. It also tolerates some waterlogging but in high-rainfall areas, good internal drainage of the soil is important. Lime is harmful, and shallow or poorly drained or peaty soils should be avoided. Lateritic soils are suitable for growth. [2, 5, 7, 13]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Rubberwood was formerly regarded as a byproduct of the rubber plantations and used for the production of charcoal or as fuelwood, for brick making, tobacco drying and rubber drying. "The importance of the timber from the rubber plantations is now fully recognized, and in Southeast Asia it is planted solely for timber production" [7]. Most of the timber is used to manufacture furniture. Other uses include interior finish, moulding, e.g. for wall paneling, picture frames, drawer guides, cabinet and other handles, parquet flooring, many household utensils, blockboard cores, pallets, crates, coffins, veneer and glue-laminated timber, e.g. for staircases and door and window components. "Since the timber is only moderately durable when exposed to the elements, it should not be used for exterior purposes. Offcuts and other rubberwood residues have been used successfully in Malaysia for the production of particle board, wood-cement board, and medium-density fiberboard" [7]. [1, 7, 12] [Non-wood]: "Latex, the source of hevea or para rubber, is obtained by tapping the trunks of the trees. The latex coagulates with the aid of acetic acid, formic acid and alum. Cured rubber is used for all types of rubber products. Although poisonous, seeds of rubber can be eaten as a famine food after processing, which involves prolonged soaking or boiling to remove the cyanic poisons. Some of the denser wild stands of rubber in the Amazon are said to be due to artificial enrichment by indigenous peoples to increase food supply. Seeds contain 40-50% oil, which dries well and is suitable for use as food and for technical purposes. Seeds are the source of para rubber seed oil. Boiling removes the poison and releases the oil, which can be used for illumination. Kernels (50-60% of the seed) contain semi-drying pale yellow oil used in soap making, paints and varnishes. Kernel oil is effective against

contains 8-15% residual oil, whereas the extracted meal has only 2-4% " [14]. "Seeds are sometimes eaten off the ground by cattle. Press cake or extracted meal can be cautiously used as feed for livestock or as a fertilizer. So much nectar is secreted by the extra-floral nectaries that rubber is an important source of honey. Rubberwood waste is an excellent medium for the growing of mushrooms, especially oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.). The mottled seeds of H. brasiliensis are still used for fish bait by rural folk along the Amazon River" [7]. [Other]: Intercropping with pineapple, beans, coffee or cocoa is possible. Especially for coffee and cocoa Hevea brasiliensis can be used as a shade tree. A fodder crop such as Cajanus might be tried for lac production instead of the usually recommended cover crops (e.g. Calopogonium, Centrosema, Flemingia, Psophocarpus, Pueraria). Cattle can graze under the mature trees. [7, 12]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [4]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

houseflies and lice" [7]. "The oil can either be expressed (hot or cold) or extracted. The press cake

4

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Rubber grows naturally in the tropical evergreen rainforest of the Amazon Basin, often in periodically flooded areas, but larger trees are found on the well-drained plateaus. In its natural habitat, it forms part of the middle storey of the tropical forest. [Establishment]: Stands are established by using direct sowing or planting stock. The area to be planted with rubber is cleared, lined and marked for roads and drainage. Planting pits are dug, 75 x 75 x 75 cm [7], or 90 x 90 x 90 cm [7] and filled with surface soil and manure. It is preferable to establish a legume cover after transplanting in the field. [Management]: The economic life cycle of a rubber plantation is 30-35 years [7], after which replanting is necessary. Weed control is essential in rubber plantations. Pruning to shape the trees and removal of the unwanted lateral suckers is essential. Mulching should be carried out just before the end of the late rains. "Recommended fertilizers must be applied at the right time and at the recommended doses" [7]. [Harvesting]: "Tapping begins when trees are 5–8 years old, depending on the area, and increases every year until a maximum at about 20 years, then yield sustained for 40–50 years or more. Tapping consists of removal by excision of a thin cut of bark about 1 mm deep at regular intervals, thus opening the latex vessels in the bark, which are arranged in concentric cylinders and run in counterclockwise spirals up the trunk. Usually the cuts run half-way around the trunk, but may encircle the tree. Several types of cuts are used. Only the basal part (1.3 m) of the trunk is tapped (most latex vessels develop here). Special knives are used to cut the proper depth and angle. Latex is collected through a small spout fixed in the bark in cups placed at end of cut, large enough to collect one-day's

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

flow. Trees are tapped early in morning when flow of latex is highest; flow decreases with temperature

5

and usually ceases in about 3 hours. An average tapper can tap 200–300 trees in 3 hours. Then the tapper starts back through the grove and empties the cups into large pails or buckets, sometimes adding a few drops of dilute ammonium solution to prevent coagulation. Rubber yield can be increased treating the bark below the tap with yield-stimulating mixtures containing plant hormones and selective weed-killers with hormone properties, as Stimalax, Eureka, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T in palm oil. Copper sulfate also enhances latex flow" [2]. [Yield]: About 1,500-1,800 kg/ha/yr [12] of rubber latex can be harvested in plantations. [Agroforestry]: Intercropping with pineapple, beans, coffee or cocoa is possible. Especially for coffee and cocoa it can be used as a shade tree. A fodder crop such as Cajanus might be tried for lac production instead of the usually recommended cover crops (e.g. Calopogonium, Centrosema, Flemingia, Psophocarpus, Pueraria). Cattle can graze under the mature trees. After a few years under legumes, no nitrogen fertilizer may be needed, but phosphorus, magnesium and potassium may be limiting in some areas. [1, 2, 7, 11, 12]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: The rubber tree starts bearing fruit at four years of age. Fruits are collected when they change from green to brown, the time at which the seeds have the most germinative power. Each fruit contains three or four seeds, which fall to the ground when the fruit ripens and splits. Each tree yields about 800 seeds (1.3 kg) twice a year [14]. Seeds average 180 per kg [13]. Their storage behaviour is recalcitrant, "viability can be maintained for 3 months in moist storage with moist charcoal and sawdust in a perforated polythene bag at 7-10°C. Whole seed moisture content is 36%; lowest safe moisture content is 20%, and no seeds survive further desiccation to 15% mc. Seeds are killed on exposure to -5°C for 3-4 hours. Commercial clonal seed are stored in cold storage at about 4°C, which often gives reduced but tolerable germination" [7]. "If they do not dry out, seeds can survive from a few weeks to a few months. Ventilation should not be limited because the seeds have a high respiration" [13]. "Pregermination of the seeds must be done in sawdust beds. Seeds germinate shortly after release from the mother plant and 8 days after being planted (only 7-10 days [7]). 15 days after collection, the seeds’ germination percentage decreases considerably. The average germination percentage is 60%. The germinator should be 1 m wide by 10 cm high with variable lengths. The germinator is prepared with muddy soil, which is covered with a layer of sawdust. The seeds are placed with their ventral surfaces on the sawdust, 1 cm apart. One thousand seeds will fit into 1 m² of germinator. A threshing floor of 1.7 m² will produce 1,700 seeds, which provide the 500 plants needed to plant 1 ha. Germination occurs 8 to 10 days after planting (1-3 weeks, depending on climatic conditions and freshness [7]), and the plantules are transplanted when they reach an appropriate developmental state. The threshing floors are watered abundantly to

[Propagation]: Rubber can be propagated through seed or vegetatively by grafting (buddings, cuttings [7]) or tissue culture. "Usually 2 or more seeds per hole are planted, and then seedlings are selectively thinned, or the seeds are planted in a nursery. Seedlings grow to 1-1.5 m in 6 months. Seedlings also make good cuttings, but rubber-bearing trees take very poorly or not at all" [7]. [1, 7, 13, 14]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Pests include plant parasites such as Loranthus spp., nematodes such as Helicotylenchus cavenessi, H. dihystera, H. erythrinae and Meloidogyne incognita acrita. Insect pests include scale insects (Aspidiotus cyanophylli and Parasaissetia nigra) and white ants. Snails can be serious pests of young trees, and various animals can damage the trunks" [7]. [Diseases]: "Three types of root disease, classified as white, red and brown, are controlled by cutting away diseased tissue and applying prophylactic coatings. Panel diseases, classified as black stripe, mouldy rot and panel necrosis, are minimized by spraying or coating specific fungicides. Stem disease, consisting of pink disease, stem canker and die-back, is reduced by brushing on specific fungicides. Leaf disease, consisting of abnormal leaf fall, Gloeosporium leaf disease, powdery mildew and bird’s-eye spot, is controlled by a variety of sprays, including copper oxychloride and sulphur dust, applied by spray or dusting techniques" [7].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

maintain humidity and facilitate germination" [13].

6

[Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela. [2, 7] [Introduced]: Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Liberia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Uganda, Vietnam. [2, 7]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Varieties]: "There are many improved varieties and cultivars in areas where Para Rubber is cultivated commercially. These vary in size, productivity of latex, and disease resistance. (2n=36, 34,72)" [2]. [Chemistry]: " Per 100 g, the poisonous seed is reported to contain 8.5 g H2O, 17.6 g protein, 48.5 g fat, 22.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g ash, 120 mg Ca, and 430 mg P. Leaves contain - and tocopherol, and plastochromanol-S. Ubiquinone 9 and 10 heveaflavone, vitexin, and isovitexin are

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

also reported. The latex contains 60% water, 37% caoutchouc, 0.34% protein, 1.45% quebrachitol,

7

0.25% sugar, 0.53% ash, and 0.34% undetermined substances. Arachidylacohol, r, -, -, -, and tocotrienol, hevein, L-inosit-2-methylether, -indolylaceticacid, trigonelline, ergothioneine, and hercynine. Bark contains D-apiose (C5H10O5). Seeds contain the toxin linamarin (C10H17NO6). The seed oil (ca 40%) contains 7% palmitic-, 9% stearic-, 0.3% arachidic-, 30% oleic-, 30–50% linoleic-, and 2–23% linolenic-acids [2]". "Fresh rubber-seed oilcake contains up to 0.09% prussic acid, which is released, as in linseed, from a glucoside by an enzyme" [14]. [History of cultivation]: "During the last century, rubber was a forest product, obtained chiefly from wild hevea trees in the Amazon basin. About 1895, it began to be taken up as a plantation crop for the eastern tropics and in central Africa. Now practically all of the world’s supply of natural rubber comes from plantations of H. brasiliensis, known as para rubber, only a very small proportion coming from uncultivated hevea trees growing in Brazil. Natural rubber accounted for about 30% of world demand in 1991, the balance being provided by synthetic rubber derived from byproducts of the mineral-oil industry. Most of the stock for rubber plantations in Southeast Asia came from a consignment of 22 seedlings sent to the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1877 from Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, UK. The Goodyear Company made plantings in the Philippines in 1928. Rubber seeds were first sent to India from Brazil in 1873, but they did not survive. A 2nd attempt was made in 1875, but the seeds were no longer viable when they reached India. Para rubber was introduced into various tropical African countries early in the 20th century. Thus Uganda received a seedling from Kew in 1901 and from Sri

Lanka (then Ceylon) in 1903. By 1912, 15 000 acres had been planted in Uganda. The Firestone Company began plantings in Liberia in 1924" [7].

W. Further readings5 : Anon. 1986. The useful plants of India. Publications & Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India. [7]

Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). [7]

Cobley L.S & Steele W.M. 1976. An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops. Longman Group Limited. [7]

Crane E, Walker P. 1984. Pollination directory for world crops. International Bee Research Association, London, UK.

Gonçalves P. de S. Cardoso M. Ortolani A. A. (1990) Origin, variability and domestication of Hevea a review. [11]

Hong TD, Linington S, Ellis RH. 1996. Seed storage behaviour: a compendium. Handbooks for Genebanks: No. 4. IPGRI. [7]

Lanzara P and Pizetti M. 1978. Simon & Schuster’s guide to trees. Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York. [7]

Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC (eds.). 1995. Plant Resources of South-east Asia. No 5(2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[7]

8

[7]

MacMillan HF et al. 1991. Tropical planting and gardening. Malayan Nature Society. [7]

Nigel JHS, Williams JT, Donald LP, Jennifer PT. 1992. Tropical forests and their crops. Cornell University Press. [7]

Opeke LK. 1982. Tropical tree crops. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. [7]

Priyadarshan P.M. Goncalves P. de S. (2002) Allied Species of Rubber and their Distribution. [11]

Purseglove JW. 1968. Tropical crops. Dicotyledons. Longman Group Ltd, UK.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[7]

9

Taylor DH, Macdicken KG. 1990. Research on multipurpose tree species in Asia. Proceedings of an International Workshop held November19-23, 1990 in Los Ba๑os, Philippines. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development. [7]

Webster C.C. Baulkwill W.J. (1989) Rubber. [11]

Williams R.O & OBE. 1949. The useful and ornamental plants in Zanzibar and Pemba. Zanzibar Protectorate. [7]

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[2] Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/SearchEngine.html (Internet source)

[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[4] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[5] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=506541 (Internet source)

[6] Various Authors, 1973: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-nam (Fascicule 18th), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

[7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

[9] Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER): http://www.hear.org/pier/species/hevea_brasiliensis.htm (Internet source)

[10] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CDROM).

[11] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations.

[12] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International. 320pp.

[13] V.M. NIETO and J. RODRIGUEZ, Hevea brasiliensis Müll. Arg Euphorbiaceae (Spurge Family). Corporacion Nacional de Investigacion of Forestal Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia. [14] Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO): http://www.fao.org/AG/aGA/AGAP/FRG/AFRIS/index_en.htm (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[8] Khurshid Akhter, 2005: Preservative Treatment of Rubber Wood (Hevea brasiliensis) to increase it's Service Life. The International Research Group on Wood Protection, Bangalore, India (http://www.irg-wp.com)

10

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Hopea ferrea Lanessan]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Hopea ferrea Lanessan] ³

Hopea ferrea Lanessan [1]

B. English name (s)

³

No information available.

C. Synonym

³

Balanocarpus anomalus King (1893), Hopea anomala (King)

A. Latin name

(s)

Foxw. (1927) [1]

D. Other1

³

malut, giam (Trade name) [1] - malut, chengal laki, chengal batu (Malaysia) [1] - chik, cha:d, kh'è:n hin (Laos) - takhianhin, kian-sai, takhian-nuu, takhian sai, lao tao (Thailand) [1, 7] - s[aw]ng d[af]o, sao t[is]a (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

KKIfµ Source: [-]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôki thmâ [10], koki thmor [5]

1

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Hopea Roxb. Species: Hopea ferrea Lanessan Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A medium-sized, sometimes large evergreen tree with a height of 20-35 m [1, 9, 10]. The bole is cylindrical and straight but often twisted and gnarled and with a diameter of up to 70-80 cm [9] (-145 cm [1]) and inconspicuous buttresses. The crown is globe-shaped with numerous twigs. [Bark]: The outer bark is shaggy, shallowly fissured, flaking in thin scales, dark brown or grey. The inner bark is of dull orange-yellow color and much fibrous, 1-1.2 cm thick [9]. [Leaves]: Young leaves have a brilliant red color. In general leaves are simple and asymmetric, opposite egg-shaped, 4-10 cm x 2-5.5 cm [1] (4-6 x 2-4 cm [9]) with a broadly wedged-shaped base, or rarely blunt, and a slender drip tip up to 2 cm long [1]. The venation is ladder-like, with an evident midrib above, secondary veins in 6-8 (-9) pairs [1] (8-10 pairs [9]), arched, slender but distinctly raised beneath. [Flowers]: The inflorescence is the only part of the plant with hairs. Flowers are white with 2 longer fruit calyx lobes up to 4 cm x 1 cm [1] (3-4 x 1-1.8 cm [7]), broadly spoon-shaped, blunt, 3 shorter lobes up to 5 mm x 1 mm [1] (3-4 x 1 mm [7]), spear- to needle-shaped and thickened. Flowering season is from March to December (Thailand) [7]. [Fruits]: The fruit (=nut) is cylindrical spindle-shaped, resinous, approximately 1 x 0.3 mm [7] in size. Fruiting season is January-December (Thailand) [7] (March to April in Vietnam [9]). [1, 7, 9, 10]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is thin yellow or

showing a brownish-red color. It easily split when dry. The density of the wood is 0.87-1.17 g/cm³ [1] at 15% moisture content. The timber is durable not affected by insects and favorable for furniture making. The trunk contains yellowish and aromatic resin. [1, 9, 10]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : H. ferrea occurs frequently in small, almost pure stockings in SE-Asia and continental Asia. It is a typical Indochinese species, widespread throughout the region except N-Vietnam. "In Thailand, it is found throughout the country, but very scattered in northern areas (Chiang Mai) and not recorded from the western part" [7]. It occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the lowlands, occasionally by streams which can contain a considerable amount of deciduous tree species (20-50% [4]). "These forests are usually 25 to 30 m [4] tall, with closed canopies and a lower tree stratum of some 5 and 17 m in height" [4]. The tree is also rather commonly found in rocky limestone formations in dry evergreen forest. In evergreen forests H. ferrea usually grows in nearly pure stands or clearly dominant. However in other forest types it is frequently associated with Anisoptera costata, Dipterocarpus alatus, Lagerstroemia spp., Sindora siamensis, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Schima superba, Terminalia chebula, etc. On the riversides it can be found within degraded vegetation.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

brownish- yellow, the heartwood is very heavy with fine grains and is distinctly darker, sometimes

[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]

2

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Hopea ferrea is a light demanding tree species of the lowlands growing at an altitude of up to 700 m a.s.l. [7, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Hopea ferrea grows on rocky ridges and slopes, especially on limestone but also on granite and sandstone formations. In upper Peninsular Malaysia (Kedah, Perlis, Langkawi) it is very common on limestone ridges. An acid to neutral pH is preferred. [1, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: "H. ferrea is a commercially important source of 'giam' timber, which is sometimes traded separately and called 'malut'" [1]. The timber is used for the construction, to make boards, beams, columns, furniture and boats. [1, 8, 10]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Non-wood]: This species yields a very fragrant resin, which is collected in Indo-China.

3

[1] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : First class [2]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: It occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the lowlands, occasionally by streams which can contain a considerable amount of deciduous tree species (20-50% [4]). "These forests are usually 25 to 30 m [4] tall, with closed canopies and a lower tree stratum of some 5 and 17 m in height" [4]. The tree is also rather commonly found in rocky limestone formations in dry evergreen forest. In evergreen forests H. ferrea usually grows in nearly pure stands or clearly dominant. However in other forest types it is frequently associated with Anisoptera costata, Dipterocarpus alatus, Lagerstroemia spp., Sindora siamensis, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Schima superba, Terminalia chebula, etc.. On the riversides it can be found within degraded vegetation. [1, 4, 7, 10]

Q. Propagation : No information available.

R. Hazards and protection : No information available.

S. Conservation : This species is threatened and since 1994 [3] (1998 [8]) classified as endangered (EN A1cd+2cd, B1+2c [8]) and vulnerable (VU A1cd, B1+2cd [7]) according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, in Thailand it is still found throughout its potential distribution range with some fragmented distribution areas, with a great number of collections and individual trees. [3, 6, 7, 8]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World distribution] [Native]: Laos, Cambodia, S-Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and NW-Peninsular Malaysia. [1]

[6]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Van Steenis, C.G.G.J. 1948. Flora Malesiana. Flora Malesiana Foundation, Leiden. [8]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[2] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[3] Omaliss, K. and Monyrak, M., 2006: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia - Status, Issues and Prospects. 19 pp. (Internet publication)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Introduced]: Brunei, Malaysia

4

[4] Stibig, H-J. and Beuchle, R., 2003: Forest Cover Map of Continental Southeast Asia at 1:4,000,000. TREES Publications Series D: Thematic outputs no. 4.

[5] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[6] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgibin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=1364644904&spd=6776&tx=PL (Internet source).

[7] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Hopea.htm#4.2%20Hopea%2 0ferrea (Internet source).

[8] The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Species Information: http://www.redlist.org/search/details.php?species=33161. (Internet source).

[9] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[10] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

5

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis] ³

Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis

B. English name (s)

³

No English name available.

C. Synonym

³

Hopea andamanica King, Hopea dealbata Hance, Hopea

A. Latin name

(s)

suavis Krurz ex Brandis, Shorea helferi Kurz, Vatica helferi Dyer [4]

D. Other1

³

krabok krang, ngon-kaibok, ngon kai, takhian-nuu, takhian mi, giam lintah bukit, pha nong daeng, pha nong hin, bai lang khao, bak dam (Thailand) [6, 7, 8] - damar, mata kucing, damar siput (Malaysia) [7] - thingan kyauk (Myanmar) [7] sao xanh (Vietnam) [7]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

KKIEdk / epþókRkhm

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ koki daek, phdiek kraham [3], ko ki dek [2] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Hopea Species: Hopea helferi (Dyer )Brandis Source :[ 6]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium-sized to large evergreen tree species with a height of 20-37 m [4] (8-25 m [2,3], 50 m [7]) with round, straight stems of beautiful form which are branchless for 15-21 m [7] and attain a DBH up to 165 cm [7] (a girth of 2-3 m in Myanmar [4]), sometimes with large and coarse buttresses. Young shoots are covered by thin hairs. [Bark]: The bark is smooth to fibrous, reddish-brown to dark brown and peels off in flakes with a pinkish shine. [Leaves]: The leaves are 10-18 x 3.5-7 cm [4] ((5-)10-24 cm x (2-)4.5-8 cm [7], 10-14 x 4-6 cm [2]), more or less oblong, sometimes rather spear-shaped with a pointed tip and leathery. The leaf base is rounded or heart-shaped, the lateral nerves are in 13-17 more or less parallel pairs [4] ((12-)14-16 pairs [7]). The leafstalk is 0.5-1.3 cm long [4] and channeled above. [Flowers]: Flowers are produced in an inflorescence (=panicle), which is terminal or from the axils of upper leaves, grey and densely covered with star-like hairs. Flowers occur in rows of 4-12 [4] on racemes. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are unequal, with 2 larger ones with an oval to oblong and blunt shape and 3 smaller ones which are rather more pointed and thin. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are pale yellow and narrowly elliptic-oblong. Stamens (=male organs) 15, the anthers have a fine hairy appendage. The ovary (=female organ) is short cylindrical, pointed and hairless, slightly tapering upwards and constricted about the middle. The species flowers from January to February. [Fruits]: Mature fruits are produced from March to April. The fruit is ovoid, ending abruptly in a short point, hairless and still surrounded by the base of the enlarged outer flower leaves (=sepals), the

with 7-9 nerves [4], the 3 smaller sepals ovate and 3-4 mm long [4] (5 x 3 mm [7]). [2, 3, 4, 7]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is very hard and moderately heavy with a pale yellow sapwood, turning pale brown on exposure and a yellowish brown to brownish-red or brownish grey heartwood, sometimes with dark streaks interlocked grained, with a medium texture. The rays are rather fine, spindle shaped, not closely spaced and evenly distributed. Resin canals are very irregularly distributed. It is diffuse porous, with small to medium sized moderately numerous round vessels which are uniformly distributed. It has a density of 0.895-1.125 g/cm3 at 15% moisture content [7]. In general the wood is not durable. It is difficult to saw, but is easy to work with and can be brought to a fairly fine finish. Treatment is not easy, especially with the heartwood where the the side- and end penetration is almost zero. It is also resistant to water and air. [2, 4, 7]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

larger ones 5-8 x1-1.2 cm [4] (6.5 cm x 1.8 cm [7]), narrowly oblong, with a rounded apex hairless,

2

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : This species has a widespread distribution throughout Southeast Asia and also occurs in South Asia on the Andaman Islands (India). It is often cultivated in the Mekong delta and the Malay Peninsula. H. helferi occurs solitarily or in small groups on hill slopes and undulating land in semi-evergreen forest and moist evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests and riparian forests. [2, 3, 4, 7, 8]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Hopea helferi usually grows below 700 m a.s.l. [2] (up to over 500 m [7], 0-400 m [8]) in tropical monsoon climates. It is a shade tolerant tree species when young. [2, 7]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Northern Cardamons (B), Redlands (c), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Central Annamites (G), Southern Annamites (g). [2] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Preah Vihear (X:506199 Y:1529405), Kampong Thom (X:556593 Y:1405028), Kratie (X:621507 Y:1343173), Kratie (X:574776 Y:1455668), Kratie (X:584122 Y:1377330), Stung Treng (X:659571 Y:1525339), Siem Reap (X:402976 Y:1544202), Preah Vihear (X:514960 Y:1536045), Kampot (X:425917 Y:1212667), Mondul Kiri (X:720687 Y:1355859), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2]

3

M. soil and site conditions : H. helferi occurs on deep and wet soils especially on sedimentary rocks with an acid to neutral pH. The species occurs also in relatively poor sites where it is distributed sporadically. [2, 4, 6, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is used for light and heavy construction and for fishing and racing boats. Houses constructed from it can last for 7-8 years [2] and boats up to 30 years [2]. It is also commonly used to make local carts, handicrafts and cabinets. [2, 3, 6, 7] [Non-wood]: The resin is demanded for the manufacture of varnish and also for making firetorches for local use. [2] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : First Class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: H. helferi is often cultivated in the Mekong delta and the Malay Peninsula. H. helferi occurs solitarily or in small groups on hill slopes and undulating land in semi-evergreen forest and moist evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests and riparian forests. [Establishment]: No information available. [Management]: Selective fellings are carried out in Myanmar for good quality logs. [2, 3, 4, 7, 8]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: "The seeds of Hopea helferi are mature and ready for collection when the wings have turned to a dark brown and the coat has changed from green to yellow. It is important to time the collections of this species carefully, as seeds that are not fully mature have low viability. The fruit is collected directly by climbing the tree, or by shaking the branches over tarpaulins spread on the ground. Collection from the forest floor should be avoided as these seeds have low viability and are often heavily infected by weevils. Fresh seeds have high moisture content and must be kept in loosely folded bags away from the sunlight during transport and temporary storage. Seed Handling: Soon after collection in the field the wings of each fruit must be removed manually; while immature and insect-infected fruits are to be discarded" [2].

[Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : "Dipterocarp forests in general, and Hopea Helferi in particular, are now uncommon due to the overexploitation and degradation of their habitats. Large populations of this species are now rarely found within forest concession areas. The species often grows in moist forest, and along streams. Thus, when their habitat is destroyed, trees cannot easily regenerate. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined Hopea Helferi (Dyer) Brandis. as a priority species in need of immediate conservation intervention and appropriate protection" [2]. This tree is threatened and critically endangered (CR A1cd+2cd, B1+2c [5]), according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). It is found throughout its fragmented potential distribution ranges with a small number of individual trees. The number of recent and past collections are comparable. [2, 5]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

R. Hazards and protection :

4

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : In Cambodia, it is found in Stung Treng, Siem Reap, Preah Vihear, Mondulkiri, Kampot and Pursat [2]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, India (Andaman Islands), Malaysia (Peninsular), Vietnam [4, 6, 7] [Introduced]: No information available.

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960-. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. [7] Foxworthy, F.W., 1932. Dipterocarpaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan Forest Records No 10. Printers Limited, Singapore. 289 pp. [7] Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Fundter, J.M., 1982. Names for dipterocarp timbers and trees from Asia. Pudoc, Wageningen. 251 pp.

5

[7] Grewal, G.S., 1979. Air-seasoning properties of some Malaysian timbers. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 41. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 26 pp. [7] Lee, Y.H., Engku Abdul Rahman & Chu, Y.P., 1979. The strength properties of some Malaysian timbers. Revised edition. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 34. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 107 pp. [7] Ng, F.S.P. & Tang, H.T., 1974. Comparative growth rates of Malaysian trees. Malaysian Forester 37: 2-23. [7] Smitinand, T., Santisuk, T. & Phengklai, C., 1980. The manual of Dipterocarpaceae of mainland South-East Asia. Thai Forestry Bulletin 12: 1-110. [7]

Symington, C.F., 1941. Foresters' manual of dipterocarps. Malayan Forest Records No 16. Forest Department, Kuala Lumpur. pp. xliii + 244. [7] Tang, H.T. & Tamari, C., 1973. Seed description and storage tests of some dipterocarps. Malaysian Forester 36: 113-128. [7] van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors), 1950-. Flora Malesiana. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London. [7]

X. References: [1] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[2] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[5] www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)

[6] Sontara, S. (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.

[7] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[8] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Hopea.htm (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[4] Regional Office for the Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph 1985/4. Regional office for the Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Hopea odorata Roxb]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Hopea odorata Roxb] ³

Hopea odorata Roxb

B. English name (s)

³

white thingan [11]

C. Synonym

³

Hopea decadra Buch. Ham. ex Wt., Hopea wightiana Mig. ex

A. Latin name

(s)

Dyer, Hopea eglandulosa Roxb [4]

D. Other1

³

thingan, white thingan, merawan (Trade name) [9, 11] - koki mosau, sao den, sao (Vietnam) [9, 11] - takhian thong, takhian-yai (Thailand) [7, 9] - sauchi, thingan net (Myanmar) [11] - merawan siput jantan, chengal mas, chengal pasir, merawan siput jantah, net sauchi, thingan (Malaysia) [9, 11] kh'e:n (Laos) [9] - rimda (India) [14]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

KKIremSA

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôki msau [3], koki mosau, thmar [9], koki msav [12], koki masao, ko ki msau [2]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Hopea Roxb. Species: Hopea odorata Roxb Source :[ 4,9]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Hopea odorata is a large evergreen tree species, growing up to 45 m tall [2, 6, 9, 11] (40 m [15], 30-40 m [17]. The bole is straight, cylindrical, branchless to 15-25 m [2], with a DBH of up to 120 cm [2, 6, 9] (up to 80 cm [17], 450 cm or more [11]) and has prominent buttresses. The crown is dense, dark green, pyramidal or conical in young trees and spreading in mature trees. Twigs are slender, and hairless, except when young. [Bark]: The bark surface is grey-brown to black and has irregular longitudinal shallow fissures in immature trees but becomes scaly with deep cracks when reaching maturity. The inner bark is yellow or reddish. [Leaves]: Hopea odorata is notable from other Dipterocarpaceae due to a bunch of black hairs on the leaves. The leaves are simple and alternate oval to spear-shaped and 10-20 cm long [6] (15 cm [9], 714 x 3-7 cm [11], 8-12 x 3-6 cm [2], 8-14 x 3-6 cm [17]) with a slightly unequal wedge-shaped leafbase. The leaf-blade has a dark green color and is approx. 11-nerved with a parallel venation and a flat midrib. The leafstalk is 2 cm long and slender. [Flowers]: Flowering stalks are terminal or axillary, 12 cm long [9], twice-branched, with many up to 205 cm long branchlets bearing up to 9 flowers [9]. Flowers are small, unisexual and sweet scented with 5 pinkish [6] (yellowish-white [11]) and hairy flowerleaves (=petals). Male flowers have 15 stamens (=male organs) [11] with narrowly ellipsoid anthers. Female flowers contain one ovoid ovary (=female organ) which is spotted and hairless. Flowering occurs between February and March [2, 6, 17] (February-April [11]), at more or less regular intervals, usually every two years in trees which are

[Fruits]: The fruits ripen in April-May [2, 17] (May-June [11], April-July [6]). The period between anthesis and maturity of the fruit is about three months. The fruit (=nut) is globe-shaped to conical, green when immature, about 1 cm in diameter [6] (0.7-0.8 cm [2] and still surrounded by the flower leaves. It has two wings which are 3-4 cm long [11] (6.2 cm long [9], 5-6 x 1-2 cm [2]) and finely veined lengthwise. There is one seed per fruit. The seeds are polyembryonic with an average of 4 embryos per seed [2]. In some fruiting years, fruits are produced in large quantities; in others it is restricted to a few branches. The fruits are dispersed by wind and seeds germinate readily on falling to the ground. [2, 6, 9, 11, 15, 17]

I. Wood properties: [Wood properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is pale yellow, the heartwood is yellow, grey yellow to olive brown or brownish red, sometimes with dark streaks, turning purplish on exposure, with white tangential lines (=resin canals) at irregular intervals. Annual rings are conspicious and usually 3-6 mm [17] wide. It is shining when first exposed but becomes dull with age. The surface is medium smooth and moderately heavy, with broadly interlocked grains. Wood fibers are 1.3-1.8 mm [17] long. The timber is strong with a moderately fine and even texture. It has a

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

more than 8-10 years old [2].

2

density of 0.5-0.98 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [4] and 0.75 g/cm³ at 12% moisture content [4] (0.74 g/cm³ when dry [17], 0.755 g/cm³ [11]). "The volume shrinkage coefficient is 0.45, fiber saturation point 18%. The pressure strength along the grain is 0.647 g/cm³, the static bending strength 1.635 g/cm³, the splitting strength is 16 kg/cm and the collision bending strength is 0.97" [17]. The timber is moderately easy to re-saw and crosscut. "Planing is fairly easy and the surface produced is smooth. Nailing property is rated very poor. The timber seasons slowly with slight cupping as the only defect. 15 mm boards take approximately 4 months to air dry while 40 mm boards take 6 months. For kiln drying, Schedule H is recommended. 25 mm boards take approximately 5 days to kiln dry from 50 to 10% moisture content. There is no recorded drying degrade" [9]. The wood is moderately durable, resistant to termite attack, however, also very resistant to preservative treatment. H. odorata is commercially grouped together with other species of light hardwood Hopea sp. as 'merawan' in Malaysia, Indonesia and elsewhere. [2, 4, 9, 11]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 20°N to 5°S [9]. H. odorata is native to S- and continental SE-Asia from the Andaman Islands (India) to Myanmar, Thailand and Indochina with its southernmost limit in north Peninsular Malaysia (in North Perak and Terengganu). It is a common tree of the moist evergreen forests, although it is a riparian species and grows concentrated in lowland areas and near the banks of mountain streams. Occasionally it can also be found in beach forests. In Cambodia, H. odorata grows predominantly in mixed closed evergreen forests or in pure stands, either in small groups or alone. In Indochina H. odorata usually is associateds with dipterocarps like Dipterocarpus alatus, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Anisoptera cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus intricatusi and a number of leguminous species such as

3

Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia cochichinensis. [2, 4, 9, 11, 14, 17]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : In Indochina, H. odorata is found up to an altitude of about 300 m a.s.l. [4, 9] while the Indian population, occurs at higher altitudes (0-600 m [11], -700 m [10]), away from streams. It thrives in zones with different tropical climate, from moist equatorial climates with a mean annual rainfall of 2,200-5,000 mm [11] to distinct seasonal climates with a mean annual rainfall of 1,500-2,000 [17] (1,200-4,000 mm [9]) and a dry season of 0-5 months [9] (4-6 months [17]. The average relative humidity in these climates is about 75-85%. However, it will also tolerate a lower mean annual rainfall below 1,000 mm [9] but only if it is close to streams. Best growth is obtained in climates with a mean annual temperature of 25°-27°C [4, 9] (36-40°C [11]). The mean maximum temperature of hottest month is 27-35ºC [9], the mean minimum temperature of coldest month 18-22ºC [9] and the absolute minimum temperature is between 0 and 14ºC [9]. H. odorata is shade tolerant when young (during the first five years), but later requires sunlight. Fire is uncommon in its natural habitat. It is fire sensitive and in case of fire the young seedlings get killed. [2, 4, 9, 10, 11, 17]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (A), Redlands (c), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Southern Annamites (g). [2] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Kratie (X:586633 Y:1446326), Kampong Thom (X:563879 Y:1410872), Kratie (X:616002 Y:1430186), Stung Treng (X:586368 Y:1471991), Stung Treng (X:591660 Y:1485220), Preah Vihear (X:514571 Y:1538087), Ratanak Kiri (X:727499 Y:1498000), Koh Kong (X:286900 Y:1314675), Koh Kong (X:381914 Y:1239061), Kampong Thom (X:553651 Y:1403643), Ratanak Kiri (X:710012 Y:1548585), Siem Reap (X:401706 Y:1544626), Kratie (X:618814 Y:1345788), Koh Kong (X:285400 Y:1307700), Mondul Kiri (X:722301 Y:1356694). [2]

M. soil and site conditions : Good growth is obtained on grey soil on old alluvium, feralit on mica schist, granite or red basalt soils, lateritic soils, sandy soils and tropical soils with humus content 2-3%. In general well drained [9] but moist (wet [5]), deep and rich soils, usually along the banks of streams, in flat land and on the footslopes of mountains are suited. An acid to neutral pH between 5.5 and 6.5 is preferred. "Experiments have shown that H. odorata is suitable for planting in degraded sites such as log yards, skid trails from logging activities, and ex-mining land" [9].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The timber is a strong light hardwood which is traded as 'merawan'. It is used for heavy and light construction, (e.g. bridge construction), beams, carpentry/joinery, wall panelling, exterior fittings, gates, furniture, flooring, roofing, piles, fences and fenceposts, engineering structures, hydraulic works, containers, pallets, crates, boxes, veneer, wood based materials, plywood, blockboard, laminated wood, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand lumber, laminated strand lumber, oriented strand lumber, composite boards, wood cement, gypsum board, particleboard, waferboard, flakeboard, oriented strandboard, fiberboard, hardboard, medium density fiberboard, improved wood carts, presses, ploughs and a number of other uses, especially for boat and ship construction. "This species is of special importance in Cambodia as it is used in the manufacture of Cambodian racing boats. Following rarefraction due to extensive exploitation, it has been replaced by the wood of Shorea obtusa" [2]. It is also an excellent wood for railway sleepersand is also used as an alternative to maple (Acer spp.) for shoe and boot making. [4, 6, 9, 11, 16, 17] [Non-wood]: The leaves, bark and wood contain 11, 13-15, and 10% [11] tannin respectively, and are thus used for tanning purposes. Especially the bark is suitable for tanning leather and produces an

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[5, 9, 11, 17]

4

inferior resin which is called 'rock dammar'. This resin has been commercially classified as a second quality 'dammar' and has similar uses to Dipterocarpus spp. in preparation of picture paintings and varnishes for indoor decorative work. The Burmese use the resin to caulk their boats and mix it with ink for paintings. "A composition prepared by mixing the resin with bees-wax and red ochre is used for fastening spear and arrowheads" [11]. The tannin rich leaves have a softening effect and are used for finishing mangrove-tanned leathers. Parts of this tree are commonly used in traditional medicine: The 'dammar' is applied on sores and wounds. It is used to treat diarrhea, and forms part of a remedy for the treatment of inflammations of the gums and incontinence. It can also replace the areca nut in betel quid. In Indo-China, the bark has been used for chewing as it produces a flexible pale leather and is also used as an astringent. [2, 4, 9, 11, 14, 15, 16] [Others]: It is suitable for planting on degraded lands for revegetation and land reclamation and is also widely planted as an ornamental and shade tree for amenity purposes. In SE-Asia this species is used for reforestation, especially in Vietnam. In Cambodia it is planted as an ornamental tree especially next to roads, pagodas and schools. [2, 6, 9, 11, 16]

O. Cambodian wood classification : First class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[General]: H. odorata is a common tree of the moist evergreen forests, although it is a riparian species

5

and is concentrated in the low lying areas and near the banks of mountain streams. It also occasionally grows in beach forests. In Cambodia, H. odorata grows in closed mixed evergreen forest or in pure stands, either in small groups or alone. In Indochina H. odorata usually is mixed with dipterocarps like Dipterocarpus alatus, Anisoptera cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus intricatusi and a number of leguminous species such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia cochichinensis. It grows easily in a wide range of habitats and is easy to handle as a plantation species. Its tolerance of disturbed habitats has made the species popular in urban plantings. This tolerance also makes the species suitable for plantation forestry. However it is rather slow growing and a poor coppicer. It is a strong shade bearer in early stages and can tolerate shade in the pole stage also, but becomes strongly light demanding with age. It also has the ability to selfprune. [Establishment]: It is advisable to plant this tree species on grey soil, old alluvium or secondary forest soil with a forest cover still remained. Seedlings raised in a nursery are planted out in moist barren area under a cover crop which is subsequently removed. As a planting system pure planting or mixed planting with Dipterocarpus alatus, Indigofera teysmanii can be conducted. "It can be planted in patches or bands (15-30 m wide), with an average density of 600 trees/ha (4 x 4 m) to 1,000 trees/ha (3 x 3 m) so that final density after thinning is 300-400 trees/ha" [17]. In case of ornamental plantings, sufficient space must be provided for the tree to grow, as mature trees even in the urban environment

can reach large sizes. The species also performs favorably in planting trials in degraded land and in logged-over forests in log landings and skid trails. H. odorata seedlings need slight shading. Indigofera teysmanii and Cassia siamensis are best used as support species and usually are used in the first 2-3 years [17] of the plantation. Little tending is required once the trees are established after about three years. Initial tending such as weed control and the removal of competition from surrounding trees is essential during the establishment phase. [Management]: Tending is done in 7 consecutive years until canopy closure. In year 1 to 3 tending operations are conducted two times, one time before and one time after the rainy season. Tending includes weeding, heaping soil to the tree base, loosing the hardpan and cutting of lianas. In year 4 to 5 shoot thinning, stem shaping and canopy opening for growth promotion are carried out. In year 7 to 8 thinning is necessary to provide sufficient growing space. Besides these activities, there must be a fire control, especially in the dry season as H. odorata is very vulnerable to fires. [Increment and Yield]: This tree has the highest increment among the dipterocarp species with a diameter increment of 0.97 cm/year [2] and a height increment of 0.51 m/year [2]. "Growth data is still lacking but records of arboretum trees at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) showed diameter increment rates of about 1.8 cm/year for 46 year old trees with a mean diameter of 80 cm which have been ready for harvest. Rotation cycles have not been calculated or developed for the species but based on growth rates of a limited number of trees, a cycle of 30 to 40 years is feasible for the species on suitable sites" [9]. [Agroforestry]: In general this tree might be suitable for agroforestry systems, however, mixed be pruned very intensively to provide enough light for the coffee shrubs. [2, 4, 9, 17]

Q. Propagation : [Natural Regeneration]: H. odorata is a light-demanding species but is not invasive. Natural regeneration often occurs in areas of low shade and profusely around the mother trees. To encourage natural reproduction, the overhead canopy should be thinned or removed . "In Peninsular Malaysia it regenerates freely along rivers" [9]. In shelterwood systems in evergreen forests it is difficult to obtain enough natural regeneration because of a rather dispersed distribution. Additional direct sowing in lines 15 cm apart [4] with overhead shade provided by a cover crop has been successful. [Seed collection and storage]: H. odorata is a dipterocarp species with annual flowering and fruiting and seed supply source for forest planting plans is rather stable. During fruiting years, fruits are produced in great quantities. Seed collection season is April-May [17] when the coat of the fruit turns from green to yellow. It is best to collect the seed in the middle of fruit falling season. In this period the fruits are usually full and ripe in great numbers. They are collected from the ground under the seed bearers and can also be collected by lopping small branches or climbing the tree. However, there are high incidences of seed predation from weevils, particularly in seeds collected from the forest floor. For mass collection purposes, the fruits are often collected by shaking branches to get the fruits to

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

cropping with coffee (Coffea canephora) in Vietnam turned out to be unsuccessful. The trees had to

6

drop. A canvas is spread under the tree to facilitate collection. After collection the wings are removed manually and small, immature fruits and insect infected fruits are discarded. Fresh seeds have high moisture content and must be kept in loosely folded bags away from the sunlight during transport and temporary storage. Seeds loose their germinability very quickly 10-15 days [17] after collection, which may reduce the germination rate by 50% [17]. Thus, after seed collection the seeds should be treated by a immersion in water to sprout and then sown in seed bed. Germination can be improved by soaking in water for 8 hours [6] before sowing. There are about 3,000-4,600 seeds/kg [11]. Seeds are recalcitrant and die within five days due to dehydration. If dried at 35°C to 33% moisture content, seeds could stay viable for 1-2 months [11] at 15°C [11] , maintaining a germination rate of over 60% [11]. Undried seeds show a germination rate of 75% [9] after 14 days storage at 14°C [9]. If stored at 4°C, the seeds can stay viable for about three months [11]. However, storage at low temperature may cause chilling damage. "With longer storage, viability is often lost and germination percentage decreases even after storage at low temperatures, particularly temperatures below 10°C. Storage in nitrogen gas did not slow the deterioration of H. odorata seeds" [9]. [Nursery technique]: The seedlings are still to young if planting in the same year should be conducted. Thus it is necessary to maintain the seedlings in the nursery at least for 12 months [17] (6-9 months [6]) when the average height of the seedlings is between 80 and 100 cm [17] ( 40-60 cm [6]). In the nursery the seeds are sown in seedbeds 8 cm apart [4] (7.5 cm [11] and transplanted to into PE pots (15 x 20 cm [17])

with a pot mixture of 75-80% soil of the surface layer [17] and 15-20% of

decomposed farm manure [17]. About 70g of seed [11] is enough for one squaremeter of nursery bed. The seedlings perform best under 50% [17] shade. "Germination rate has been found to be 73% in

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

unshaded beds, 83% in shaded beds and 40% in direct field sowings" [11]. Generally, a shade crop is

7

grown to protect the young seedlings from the first hot weather and to keep weeds down. However, the young plants need full overhead light and the shade crop should be cut back periodically to ensure it does not overtop the tree. Weeding, occasional watering and loosening of the soil around the plants is recommended in the nursery. "Ectomycorrhizal infection appeared to improve growth rates of seedlings of H. odorata" [9]. [Seed Requirements for 1 ha of open plantation in Cambodia]: "No. of seeds/kg: 3,000. Planting spacing: 4 x 4 m. Net seedlings required per ha: 625. Rate of seedling loss: 750 or 20% (at the planting site), 834 or 10% (in transit), 1043 or 20% (at the nursery). Germination rate: 80%. Number of seeds needed: 1304. Weight of seeds required: 0.44 kg. Purity: 90%. Total seed requirement: 0.49 kg" [18]. [Vegetative propagation]: H. odorata is one of the dipterocarp species that have a high ratio of rooted cuttings in vegetative propagation by cuttings. That is why this method can be applied in supplying enough planting material for forest planting. A good rooting percentage is obtained with juvenile material from seedlings of 3 to 12 months old [9] and coppice shoots from older seedlings (1-4 years [6]). "Cuttings about 10 cm long, with two leaves that are shortened to 1/2 or 2/3 of the length are treated with the hormones 2,4-D 50 ppm or IAA 500 ppm for 3 seconds and rooted in sand" [6]. In trees, reservoir grafting of mature branches onto seedlings is another possible source for stem

cuttings. "In Indonesia, bare root transplanting resulted in almost 100% survival if seedlings are root pruned first. Germination took place in 1-4 weeks" [11]. [2, 6, 9, 11, 17]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Attacks by defoliators have frequently been noticed in plantations especially when new and healthy leaves appear. Stem borers attack saplings in natural forests. The weevil Nanophyes shorea attacks seeds. Several beetles and larvae of insects of the orders Coleoptera and Isoptera bore in the dead wood and fallen wood" [11]. Another reported insect pest is Calliteara cerigoides. However there are no reports of serious attacks by or pests for this species either in nurseries or in forests, except for seed predation by weevils. Spraying with insecticides can control easily the occasional attack by defoliators observed in nurseries. [9, 11] [Diseases]: There are no reports of serious attacks by diseases for this species either in nurseries or in forests. [11] [Others]: Fire is uncommon in its natural habitat. Hence, it is fire sensitive and in case of fire the young seedlings get killed. [4]

"Dipterocarp forests in general, and Hopea odorata forests in particular, are now seriously depleted due to heavy exploitation and degradation of habitats by people and concessions. Large populations of koki masao are now rarely found inside forest concession areas. At present, only scattered trees occur, and therefore, finding mother trees for seed collection is a difficult task. Hopea odorata often grows in moist forests along streams, but when their habitat is destroyed, it cannot regenerate naturally. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined Hopea odorata Roxb. as a priority species in need of immediate conservation interventions and appropriate protection" [2]. This species is considered as vulnerable (VU A1cd+2cd [2]) and critically endangered (CR A1cd [2]), according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). The estimated number of individuals threatened by logging in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) are >1,000 [13]. Also in Vietnam a long period of selective logging has reduced the size of stands to small groups of trees or isolated individuals. [2, 4, 13]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

S. Conservation :

8

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: India (Andaman Is.), Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, N-Malaysia, Vietnam [4, 8, 11, 15] [Introduced]: The species has not been introduced outside the countries of its natural range. [9]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Taxonomy]: "The Asian genus Hopea (family Dipterocarpaceae) contains about 100 species. A recent treatment is found in Ashton (1982). H. odorata is allied to H. parviflora of the Western Ghats, India" [9]. [Terminology]: "The species name means 'odour' and refers to the sweet smell of the flowers" [11]. [Breeding]: "Little work has been done in the area of variation and breeding. Apomixis has been reported in H. odorata. Maury (1970) had confirmed polyembryony in the species, with up to 12 embryos developing from a single ovule" [9]. [History of cultivation in Cambodia]: "Due to its sacred essence, in the past, it has only been planted within the grounds of pagodas by a king or monk, although nowadays it is frequently found outside of

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

these areas" [2].

9

W. Further readings5 : Aminah Hamzah, 1991. A note on growth behavior of branch cuttings of Hopea odorata.. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 3(3):303-305; 4 ref. [9]

Aminah H, 1994. Hopea odorata (Dipterocarpaceae) - Merawan Siput Jantan. In: Zakaria I, Ratnam W, eds. Selected Tree Species for Forest Plantations in Peninsular Malaysia - A Preliminary Consideration. FRIM Research Pamphlet No. 116:9-13. [9]

Ang LH, Maruyama Y, Wan Razali MW, Abd Rahman K, 1994. The early growth and survival of three commercial dipterocarps planted on decking sites in logged-over hill forest. In: Nik Muhamad M, Ismail AAM, Mohd ZH, Kamuruzaman J, eds. Proceeding of International Symposium on Rehabilitation of Tropical Rain-forest Ecosystems: Research and Development Priorities. Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, September 2-4, 1992:147-156.

[9]

Ashton PS, 1982. Dipterocarpaceae. Flora Malesiana, I, Spermatophyta, 9(2):237-552; [in text, 45 pl.]; many ref. [9]

Corbineau F, Come D, 1986. Experiments on germination and storage of the seeds of two dipterocarps: Shorea roxburghii and Hopea odorata.. Malaysian Forester, 49(3-4):371-381; 21 ref. [9]

Kantarli M, 1993. Vegetative propagation of Hopea odorata by cuttings: a low-cost technology. Technical Publication - ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre, No. 16:iii + 8 pp.; 7 ref. [9]

Kochummen KM, 1993b. Hopea odorata. Plant Resources of South-East Asia, 5(1):251. Oldfields S, Lusty C, Mackinnen A. 1998. The world list of threatened trees. 650 pp. World Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK.

Nguyen Minh Duong, 1985: Preliminary results of Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata planting system. Scientific and Technical Information, South Vietnam (No. 2-1985).

Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ (eds.). 1993. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 5(1): Timber trees: major commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. [11]

Tixier P. 1973. The biology of the Dipterocarpaceae: phenology and germinaiton of Hopea odorata at Dangkor (Kandal). Bois et Forets des Tropiques. 48: 47-52. [11]

Troup RS. 1929. The silviculture of Indian trees. Controller of publications, New Delhi, India. [11]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9]

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Troup RS. 1975. The silviculture of Indian trees. ed. 2, vol. 1. Government of India. [11]

Winata L, Suharyati, Kamil H, Yani SA, Muryono, 1986. Rooting of stem cuttings of Shorea leprosula and Hopea odorata in liquid media. BIOTROP Technical Bulletin, 1(1):10-17; 7 ref. [9]

X. References: [1] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[2] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[4] Regional Office for the Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph 1985/4. Regional office for the Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.

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[5] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[6] DANIDA, 2002: Seed leaflet - www.dfsc.dk/pdf/Seedleaflets/Hopea%20odorata_int.pdf (Internet source)

[7] www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)

[8] Sontara, S (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.

[9] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[10] PROSEA, 1994: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (1) Timber trees: Major commercial timbers.

[11] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=1756

[12] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[13] FAO: The State of Forest Management and Conservation in Cambodia http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

[14] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

[15] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgibin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=1364644904&spd=6776&tx=PL (Internet source)

[16] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CDROM).

[17] JICA, 2003: Use of indigenous tree species in reforestation in Vietnam.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[18] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom Penh

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Hopea pierrei Hance ]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Hopea pierrei Hance ] ³

Hopea pierrei Hance [1]

B. English name (s)

³

No information available.

C. Synonym

³

Hopea foxworthyi Elmer, Hopea glutinosa Elmer [3], Hopea

A. Latin name

(s)

avellanea F. Heim [7]

D. Other1

³

merawan, giam (Trade name) [1] - merawan palong (Malaysia) [1] - kh'èn hin (Laos) [1] - takhian-rak, takhian-sai, khaen-hak-yong (Thailand) [1] - ki[eef]n (Vietnam) [1] dalingdingan, malungai, manggachapui-tagokan (Philippines) [3]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

KKIxSac;

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [-]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôki, khsach [1, 10], koki khsach [5] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Hopea Roxb. Species: Hopea pierrei Hance Source :[ 3]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium-sized to large evergreen tree with a height of up to 25 m [1] (-35 m [3], 15-30 m [10], -40 m [9]). The bole is sometimes straight but often twisted and of poor shape, with a DBH of up to 50 cm [1] (180 cm [3], 60-80 cm [9]) and thin 4-5 buttresses [10] or stilt roots. The crown has a spherical shape. Young branches and buds are covered with short pale brown stiff hairs or goldenbrown shortly fine tufted hairs. Young twigs are often resinous. [Bark]: The outer bark is smooth, dark, almost black, with light patches and deep longitudinal fissures; the inner bark is light brown, tinged pink. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple, alternate, symmetrical, oval, ovate or spear-shaped, 4-8 cm x 1.5-4 cm [1], thin leathery, becoming dark grey when dry with a powdery surface. Secondary nerves are in pairs of 15-25 [7] (18 pairs [1]). [Flowers]: Flowers are arranged in grapes. The domatia (=special organ modifications in flower) are pore-like and hairy. Connectives are 3-4 times as long as anthers. Ovary (=female organ) narrowly pyriform, gradually merging into short style. Fruiting calyx with 2 wing-lobes, 2.5-5 x 0.7-1 cm [7] and 3 short ovate-oblong lobes, ca. 4 x 3 mm [7]. Flowering occurs from January-September (Thailand) [7] (September-October in Vietnam [9]). [Fruits]: The fruit (=nut) is egg-shaped to conical with a diameter of 0.7-0.8 cm [7]. It has two wings, 22.3 cm long with 7 parallel nerves [7]. When lignified the exocarp contains much resin. The fruiting period is from January-December (Thailand) [7] (May-June in Vietnam [9])

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Hopea pierrei yields a high quality timber which is resistant to insects, especially termites. The sapwood has a pale yellow-brown color and a fine texture. The density of the wood is 0.76-1.155 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content. [1, 3, 9, 10]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 12°N to 14°N. This species is confined to Indochina, especially Cambodia and Thailand, sometimes also found gregariously in the Malaysian Peninsular Malaysia. Generally it occurs mainly in primary and secondary lowland evergreen rain forests, in dense coastal forests and in heath forests. It is always occupying the dominant layer of these stands and in evergreen lowland forests it is usually mixed with Hopea odorata, Sindora tonkinensis, Sindora siamensis and Anisoptera costata. "In Thailand it has a widely disjunct distribution, common in dry evergreen forest, also on limestone hills in the southeast. It is found throughout fragmented areas of its potential distribution with a small number of individual trees" [7]. [1, 7, 8, 9, 10]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1, 3, 7, 9, 10]

2

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Generally it grows to an altitude of 1,000 m a.s.l. [1] (0-700 m [3]), while in Malaysia it is found on ridges at 300-700 m altitude [1]. H. pierrei grows in hot tropical monsoon climate in areas with a precipitation of 2,500-5,000 mm [1] and a more or less uniform rainfall regime. It can endure a dry season length of 1-3 months [3]. The mean annual temperature is 22-32ºC [3], the mean maximum temperature of hottest month, 21-28ºC [3] and the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month 18-21ºC [3]. As an absolute minimum temperature 12ºC [3] are still tolerated. This species is shade tolerant as a young plant but becomes light demanding with maturity. It also tolerates strong winds. [1, 3, 7, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : The tree is found on sandy soils with a medium soil texture, free soil drainage and an acid to neutral pH. It grows well on red and yellow ferrallitic soils, developed from acidic granite and basalt. [1, 8, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The valuable timber is used as 'merawan' (lightweight wood) or as 'giam' (heavy wood). and is able to replace teak timber for a wide range of uses. Generally it is used for construction, posts, bridges, round wood, sawn or hewn building timbers, ship building timber, engineering structures,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

parquet flooring and furniture. In Cambodia it is primarily used for construction.

3

[1, 3, 9, 10] [Non-wood]: The smooth light bark is also used to make circles, vases, ropes and papers. It also is used for medicinal purposes and for tanning. "In Vietnam the pale yellow resin is used for torches and for caulking boats and is also used in powder form thrown upon burning charcoal to give a representation of gunfire in theatrical performances" [1] [1, 3, 10] [Others]: It is often used for revegetation of logged over areas. [3]

O. Cambodian wood classification : Second class [2]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: H.pierrei occurs mainly in primary and secondary lowland evergreen rain forests, in dense coastal forests and in heath forests. It is always occupying the dominant layer of these stands and in evergreen lowland forests it is usually mixed with Hopea odorata, Sindora tonkinensis, Sindora siamensis and Anisoptera costata. It is often planted as an enrichment plant in understocked logged-

over areas or existing tree plantations as it needs partial shade in the early stages of development. The tree also regenerates rapidly and is thus often used on bare land for revegetation. [1, 3, 7]

Q. Propagation : A major disadvantage for seed collection and -storage is that seeds are short-lived and seed production is very irregular with 3-5 year intervals. The seed storage is recalcitrant. In the nursery vegetative propagation is done by air layering. "However, more research is needed on the vegetative propagation and cultural management of this species" [3]. Stands are established by using natural regeneration, direct sowing and wildlings. [3]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: The only known insect pest is Nanophyes shoreae. [3] [Diseases]: Nectria radicicola is the only reported fungus disease. [3] [Others]: H.pierrei is very sensitive to chemical defoliants. Many individuals have been killed during the chemical warfare in Indochina in the early 70's.

S. Conservation : This tree is threatened and since 1994 [4] (1998 [8]) classified as endangered (EN A1c+2c, B1+2c, C1, D [8]) according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). Populations in Cambodia have been seriously reduced due to past chemical warfare, exploitation and habitat reduction. However, in Peninsular Malaysia the species is still occurring in several forest reserves. [4, 8, 9]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, south-eastern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Western Sumatra (Indonesia). [1, 3, 6, 8] [Introduced]: India, Philippines, Papua New Guinea.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9]

[3, 6]

4

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Ashton, P.S. 1990. Annotations to: conservation status listings for Dipterocarpaceae. [8] de Guzman ED, Umali RM, Sotalbo ED, 1986. Guide to Philippine Flora and Fauna: Dipterocarps and Non-dipterocarps. Quezon City, Philippines: JMC Press Inc. [3]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[2] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[3] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[4] Omaliss, K. and Monyrak, M., 2006: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[5] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

5

[6] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgibin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=354709234&spd=6818&tx=PL. (Internet source).

[7] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Hopea.htm#4.9%20Hopea%2 0pierrei. (Internet source).

[8] The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Species Information: http://www.redlist.org/search/details.php?species=33095. (Internet source).

[9] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[10] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[11] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Lansium domesticum Corrêa]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Lansium domesticum Corrêa] ³

Lansium domesticum Corrêa [4]

B. English name (s)

³

langsat, duku [6]

C. Synonym

³

Aglaia dookoo Griffith [26], A. domestica (Corrêa em. Jack.)

A. Latin name

(s)

Pellegrin., A. aquea [6]

D. Other1

³

langsat, duku, kokosan (Indonesia, Malaysia); langsat, duku, (Burma); lansones, buahan (Philippines); langsat, duku, longkong (Thailand); bòn-bon (Vietnam) [6,26].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

laMgsat Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ léang sa:t [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Phylum: Spermatophyta

1

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Meliaceae Gunus: Lansium Species: Lansium domesticum Corrêa [4]

Source :[4 ; 6 ;`11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Tree; 8-30 m tall [4]; tree up to 30 m high and 75 cm in diameter.(in cultivation 5-10 m high); bole irregularly fluted, with steep buttresses, twigs sometimes hairy [6]. Tree 10-20 m high [13]. Erect, short-trunked tree, slender or spreading, up to 10-15 m tall [26]. [Bark]: Furrowed, mottled grey and orange and containing milky, sticky sap.red-brown to yellow brown, furrowed bark [20,26]. [Leaves]: Alternate, odd-pinnate, 30-50 cm long with 6-9 leaflets, smooth to densely haired, with leaf stalk up to 7 cm long. Leaflets alternate, elliptical to oblong, 9-21 cm long, 5-10 cm wide, glossy, paperlike to leathery with asymmetrical base, shortly pointed tip and 10-14 pairs of lateral veins. Stalks of leaflets 5-12 mm long, thickened at base [6]. Leaves imparipinnate, with 10-20 pairs of elliptic lanceolate leaflets, 12 to 25 cm long [13]. Leaves pinnate, 22.5-50.0 cm long,with 5-7 alternate leaflets, obovate or elliptic oblong, pointed at both ends, 7-20 cm long, slightly leathery, dark-green and glossy on the upper surface, paler and dull beneath and with prominent midrib [20,26]. [Flowers]: Inflorescence many-flowered, 10-30cm long raceme, single or in groups of 2-10 on trunk or large branches. Flowers small with fleshy, cup-shaped greenish-yellow calyx with 5 lobes. Petals fleshy, white to pale-yellow, 2-3 x 4-5 mm [6]. Flowers small yellowish-green, 5-lobed, sweetly scented, in dense racemes arising immediately from older branches [13]. Flowers small, white or paleyellow, fleshy, mostly bisexual, borne in simple or branched racemes which may be solitary or in hairy clusters on the trunk and oldest branches, at first standing erect and finally pendant, 10-30 cm long [20,26].

thin skin and white translucent flesh [6]. Fruit 4 cm in diameter, a globose berry, 5-septate, strawyellow. Flesh slightly acid, delicious, refreshing; seeds bitter [13]. Fruits borne 2-30 in a cluster, oval. ovoid-oblong or nearly round, 2.5-5.0 cm in diameter with a light greyish-yellow to pale brownish or pink, velvety skin, leathery, thin or thick, and containing milky latex. There are 5-6 segments of aromatic, white translucent, juicy flesh (arils), acid to subacid in flavour. Seeds, adhering more or less to the flesh, are usually present in 1 to 3 of the segments. They are green, relatively large, 2.0-2.5 cm long and 1.25-2.00 cm wide, very bitter, and sometimes, if the flesh clings too tightly to the seed, it may acquire some of its bitterness [20,26]. Fruit grows in clusters of 6-40, each containing between 13 green, bitter seeds. There exist several cultivars, "Conception" and "Paete" in the Philippines, "Uttaradit" in Thailand, "LA8" and "LA9" in Malaysia and "Casto" in Puerto Rico [33]. There are 2 distinct botanical varieties: var. pubescens, the typical wild langsat which is a rather slender open tree with hairy branchlets and nearly round, thick-skinned fruit having much milky latex, and var.domesticum, called the duku, doekoe, or dookoo, which is a more robust tree, broad topped and densely foliaged with conspicuously veined leaflets, the fruits, borne few to a cluster, are oblongovoid or ellipsoid, with thin, brownish skin, only faintly aromatic and containing little or no milky latex. The former is often referred to as the wild type but both varieties are cultivated and show considerable range of form, size, and quality. There are desirable types in both groups. Some small fruits are completely seedless and fairly sweet [20,26].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Fruit]: An ellipsoid or globose berry, 2-4 x 1.5-5.0 cm (or larger), yellowish-hairy with persistent calyx,

2

Langsats in Malaysia generally bear twice a year, in June-July and again in December-January or even until February. In India, the fruits ripen from April-September but in the Philippines the season is short and most of the fruits are off the market in less than one month [20,26]. Fruiting lasts from August to October in Puerto Rico [33].

I. Wood properties: The wood is hard and durable [6]; light-brown, medium-hard, fine-grained, tough, elastic and durable, weighing 840 kg/m³. It is utilized in Java for house posts, rafters, tool handles and small utensils. Wood tar, derived by distillation, is employed to blacken the teeth [20,26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Native to western part of Southeast Asia, now distributed through Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia to the Philippines. Small-scale plantations have been established in Burma and Vietnam [6]. Occurs as exotic in Central and South America, Caribbean Islands, and the south and southwest of the United States of America [26]. The langsat is ultra-tropical. It is a tree of tropical lowland forest and is damaged by frost. On the island of Luzon in the Philippines where the fruits are very popular the tree is being utilized in reforestation of hilly areas. It is much grown too in southern Thailand and Vietnam and flourishes in the Nilgiris and other humid areas of South India and the fruits are plentiful on local markets. The langsat was introduced into Hawaii before 1930 and is frequently grown at low elevations. An occasional tree may be found on other Pacific islands. The species is little known in the American tropics except in Surinam where it is commercially grown on a small scale [26,28].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

L. domesticum grows in sheltered, humid, shaded environments up to 800 m a.s.l., requires well

3

distributed rain fall [6]. Even in its native territory it cannot be grown at an altitude above 650-750 m. It needs a humid atmosphere, plenty of moisture and will not tolerate long dry seasons. Some shade is beneficial especially during the early years. In Java the tree grows in areas with 6-12 wet months if there is over 100 mm rainfall monthly [20,26].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Grows well on humus-rich and slightly acid soil; deep, rich, well-drained, sandy loam or other soils that are slightly acid to neutral and high in organic matter. It is inclined to do poorly on clay that dries and cracks in rainless periods, and is not at all adapted to alkaline soils. It will not endure even a few days of water-logging [26,28,33].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Wood is hard and durable; if in appropiate dimensions, it can be used for house posts, for tool handles and similar applications [26]. [Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh. Dried fruit peels burnt as insect repellent, the aromatic smoke serving as a mosquito repellent and as incense in the rooms of sick people [12]. The fresh peel contains a brown resin and reducing acids, from the dried peel, a dark, semi-liquid oleoresin composed of 0.17 % volatile oil and 22% resin is obtained [26,28]. The peel is reportedly high in tannin but it is not known whether this is used for tanning of leather [20, 26). Fruit peel, seeds and bark have various traditional medicinal uses. The resin is non-toxic and administered to halt diarrhoea and intestinal spasms. The pulverized seed is employed as a febrifuge and vermifuge. The bark is poulticed on scorpion stings. An astringent bark decoction is taken as a treatment for dysentery and malaria. Leaves may be combined with the bark in preparing the decoction. The leaf juice is used as eye-drops to dispel inflammation [20,26]. Nutritional composition (per 100 g of langsat fruit) Carbohydrate

7.8 - 14.2 g

Protein

0.4 - 0.7 g

Phosphorus Iron

10 - 19 mg 20 mg 1 mg

Thiamine

0.05 mg

Riboflavin

0.02 mg

Niacin

0.5 mg

Vitamin C

4.0 - 13.4 mg [33].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not determined [18]

P. Silviculture and management : The trees are spaced 8-10 m apart in orchards. Generally, the langsat is casually grown in dooryards and on roadsides and receives no cultural attention. Regular irrigation results in better fruit size and heavier crops. Thrice-yearly applications of a 6-6-6 fertilizer formula with added trace elements result in good growth, productivity and high quality fruits even in an adverse environment. In the Philippines, a productive tree averages 1000 fruits per year, where it is grown in half shade interplanted with

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Calcium

4

coconut. Seedlings will bear fruit in 12-20 years [26,28]. Lansium domesticum is a slow-growing species. Seedlings may need 10 to 30 years before the first fruit are produced, grafts and airlayers may fruit within 4-6 years . A mature tree may produce between 40 and 300 kg of fruit annually [33].

Q. Propagation : Langsats are commonly grown from seeds, which must be planted within 1-2 days after removal from the fruit. Cleft-, side- and approach-grafting give good results. The budwood should be mature but not old, 6.5-9.0 cm long, 6-20 mm thick, and it is joined to rootstock of the same diameter about 6.5-10.0 cm above the soil [26]. Seeds are recalcitrant and viability can only be maintained for about 5 weeks if kept moist. Viability is totally lost in 8 days unless fresh seeds are stored in polyethylene bags at 4-6 ºC where they will remain viable for 14 days [20,26,33].

R. Hazards and protection : In Puerto Rico, young langsat trees have been defoliated by the sugarcane root borer (Diaprepes abbreviatus). Scale insects, especially Pseudaonidia articulatus and Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, and the red spider mite (Tetranychus bimaculatus), are sometimes found attacking the foliage, and sooty mold is apt to develop on the honey dew deposited by the scales. Rats gnaw on the branchlets, branches and the mature fruits. Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is evidenced by brown spots and other blemishes on the fruit and peduncle and leads to premature shedding of fruits. Canker which makes the bark become rough and corky and flake off has appeared on langsats in Florida, Hawaii and Tahiti. It was believed to be caused by a fungus, Cephalosporium sp., and larvae of a member of the Tineidae have been observed feeding under the loosened bark. However,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

other fungi, Nectria sp. (perfect stage of Volutella sp.) and Phomopsis sp. are officially recorded as

5

causes of stem gall canker on the langsat in Florida [20, 26].

S. Conservation : Not a threatened species [9]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native to Thailand,Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines Exotic: Thailand, Vietnam, Central America and Caribbean Islands ( Honduras, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago), Surinam, India, United States of America [26].

V. Miscellaneous4 : The fresh peel contains 0.2% of a light-yellow volatile oil; from the dried peel, a dark, semi-liquid oleoresin composed of 0.17 % volatile oil and 22% resin is obtained. An arrow poison is made from the fruit peel and the bark of the tree. Both possess a toxic property, lansium acid, which, on injection, arrests heartbeat in frogs. The seed contains a minute amount of an unnamed alkaloid and 2 bitter, toxic principles [26].

W. Further readings5 : D.A.M. 2004: Langsat-Lansium domesticum; Dept. of Agriculture, Malaysia. Hanelt, Peter et al. 2001: Mansfeld´s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Vol.XX, Institute of Plant Genetics. Springer Mabberley, D.J. 1997: The Plant Book-a Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants; 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. Morton, J. Langsat, p.201-203 in Fruits of Warm Climates, Julia F. Morton, Miami, Florida, USA. Porcher, Michael et al., 1995-2020: Sorting Lansium names. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database. Institute for Land and Food Resources University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

1)

FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

X. References:

6

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor, B and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

26) World Agroforestry http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp?

Centre

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Internet source)

7

28)

Purdue University, USA: www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/santol.html (Internet source)

33)

montosogardens.com/langsium_domesticum.htm

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit

³

leucaena [2], horse tamarind, jumpy-bean [5], lead tree, white lead-tree, white popinac, wild tamarind, kunai (Pidgin English), lamandro (Pidgin English) [9]

C. Synonym

³

Acacia glauca Willd. nom. illeg., Leucaena glabrata Rose, Leucaena glauca (Willd.) Benth., Leucaena latisiliqua (L.) Gillis [5]

D. Other1

³

lukina (Ethiopia) [9] - leuceana (Arabia) [9] - delen, lisina (Caribbean) [9] - elana, ipil ipil, kariskis, palo-maria (Philippines) [9] - delin ranger, faux mimosa, leucaene (France) [9] - koo babul, ku-babul, lamtoro, subabul (India) [9] - klandingan, lamtoro, pelending, petai cina (Indonesian)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[9] - kan thin, kathin, kh’o:ng kha:w, khaaw, kh'oonz koong

1

(Laos) [9] - ipil-ipil, petai belalang, petai jawa (Malaysia) [9] giant leucaena, guaje, Peru leucaena, Salvador leucaena (Spain) [9] - lusina, mlusina (E-Africa) [9] - tagarai (Sri Lanka) [9] - krathin, to-bao (Thailand) [9] - bo ch[es]t, bo ch?, keo d[aaj]u, keo d? (Vietnam) [9]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

knÞMeú ft¼kÞmeÖ Ts Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kânthum the:t, khtum the [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguminosales / Fabales Family: Mimosaceae / Fabaceae Genus: Leucaena Species: Leucaena leucocephala Subspecies: Leucaena leucocephala subsp. glabrata (Rose) S. Zárate, Leucaena leucocephala subsp. ixtahuacana C. E. Hughes, Leucaena leucocephala subsp. leucocephala [5]

Source :[ 5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A small tree with a height of 3-15 (-20) m [5] (10-20 m. [2]) and a DBH of 10-35 (-50) cm [5] (-40 cm [2]). "Form varies from shrubby and highly branched for subsp. leucocephala to arborescent

glabrata" [5]. [Bark] The bark is mid-grey-brown with shallow rusty orange-brown vertical fissures. Slash reddish. [Leaves]: The leaves are bipinnate with 4-9 pairs of pinnae per leaf and 13-21 pairs of leaflets per pinna. The leaflets are small, 9-21 mm long, 2-4.5 mm wide, linear-oblong or weakly elliptical pointed at tip, rounded to blunt at base and hairless except on margins, with a concave, cup-shaped, elliptical leaf stalk gland. [Flowers]: The flowers are of white color, arranged on compact globe-shaped heads, the flower heads in groups of 2-6 in leaf axils arising on actively growing young shoots, the leaves developing simultaneously with the flowers. The heads are 12-21 mm in diameter with 100-180 flowers per head. Hairy anthers (visible with a hand lens) distinguish Leucaena from all other mimosoid legume genera. [Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are 9-19 cm long, 13-21 mm wide, linear-oblong and flat with papery pod walls, mid- to orange-brown, hairless and slightly shining (subsp. glabrata and subsp. ixtahuacana), or densely covered in white velvety hairs (subsp. leucocephala), arranged in clusters of 3-20, and occasionally up to 45, per flower head. [2, 5]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

with a short clear bole to 5 m, upright angular branching and an open, rounded crown for subsp.

2

I. Wood properties: Medium hardwood with a pale yellow sapwood and light reddish-brown heartwood. It has a medium density (0.8 g/cm³ [9], specific gravity between 0.5 and 0.6 g/cm³ [9]) and dries without splitting or checking. It is strong, medium textured, close grained and easily workable for a wide variety of carpentry purposes. The moisture content varies between 30-50% [6] depending on maturity. The wood turns well, matures to a golden-brown color and is hard enough for flooring. It accepts preservatives well but does not resist termites. Pulp yields are high (50-52%), lignin levels low, fibres short (1.1-1.3 mm). Heating values (bone-dry) average 19,250 kJ/kg. [6, 9]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: L. leucocephala grows best between 15-25°N and S [5], although it can survive between 30°N and S. It originates from Central America but was introduced and naturalized in all regions of Southeast Asia. Naturally it occurs in coastal plant communities, dry forests and secondary forests. In Cambodia, it is cultivated near the houses especially to make quickset hedges. [2, 3, 5]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : It grows best in areas below 1,500 m a.s.l [5] but can survive up to 2,000 m [5] (2,100 m [9]). L. leucocephala grows well only in sub-humid or humid climates with a bimodal or uniform, summer- or winter rainfall regime with 650-3,000 mm [5] and a moderate dry season up to 6-7 months [5]. However it grows better in areas with a well-defined dry season and can also survive in climates with Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

as little as 300-500 mm [5] rainfall. It is a light demander and requires warm temperatures of 25-30°C

3

[5] (11-33°C [2]) for optimum growth. A temperature as high as 48°C is still tolerated. Mean annual temperature: 19-28ºC [5]. Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 25-36°C. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 10-20°C. L. leucocephala is very cold- and frost sensitive (absolute minimum temperature of > 3°C [5]), with significantly reduced growth, shedding leaves even after light frosts and death of the aboveground plant parts although trees often resprout after dieback. It tolerates fast fires and can regrow after being burned to the crown by slower fires. [2, 5, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Tonle sap flood plain (C), Northwestern Lowlands (D), central Lowlands (d), Lower Mekong flood plain(E). [7]

M. soil and site conditions : It grows well only on deep, freely-drained soils with a medium to heavy texture and is well adapted to soils derived from calcareous parent material including coral. Common soils include acrisols, alkaline soils, calcareous soils, ferralsols, karst soils, limestone soils. The pH ranges from 6.8-9.0 [2] (>5 [5], >5.5 [6]). It is not suitable on acid soils with a pH of less than < 4.5 [6], on waterlogged soils, or on soils with low phosphorus, low calcium, high salinity [6] or a high aluminium saturation.

[2, 5, 6, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: L. leucocephala provides a good fuelwood which can be collected from short-rotation fuelwood plantations. Because of high pulp yields (50-52%), low lignin levels and short fibers (1.1-1.3 mm) the paper quality is generally considered to be excellent. It is also used for fenceposts, poles, flooring and small timber. [2, 5, 6] [Non-wood]: The leaves contain 25-30% protein and are a good fodder supplement. They are widely recognized as a valuable green manure in cropping systems. Young shoots and leaves can be eaten, in some countries seeds are also eaten after cooking. [2, 6] [Others]: L. leucocephala is able to fix nitrogen and has been used for soil improvement and conservation, erosion control in diverse agroforestry combinations and systems including alley farming, live-barriers on terrace boundaries, shelterbelts or windbreaks, or simply as dispersed trees over crops. "It has also been used in wider land rehabilitation and regeneration efforts in some areas, sometimes using aerial seeding, e.g. in Guam" [5]. In Cambodia, it is cultivated near the houses especially to make quickset hedges" [3]. [3, 5]

No Class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [Establishment]: For forage, seeds are usually sown in rows 1-5 m apart [6] with a seeding rate of 5-7 kg/ha using fertilizer where necessary to correct known soil deficiencies. In cut-and-carry systems, closer plant spacing gives higher yields of leucaena but in grazed situations the wider row spacings of 2-5 m [6] are more appropriate to enable the grass to grow between the rows to prevent soil 'plugging' during wet weather. [Management]: L. leucocephala is a fast-growing, light-demanding species adaptable to a wide range of production systems including pure plantations and agroforestry systems like hedgerows for fodder or green manure, alleycropping, intercropping with cassava, maize, papaya, and sweet potato. Fodder banks managed at close spacing under regular and intensive lopping. It resprouts vigorously after coppicing or pollarding. Under suitable conditions it can reach a height of 8 m and a DBH of 5 cm in 3 years [5]. Wood harvest periods range very widely, from 1-8 years [6], depending on size of desired product and harvesting equipment. Machetes are commonly used in Asia, but bandsaws and chainsaws can also be used. [2, 5, 6]

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O. Cambodian wood classification :

4

Q. Propagation : Propagation is done by natural regeneration, direct sowing and using planting stock. Number of seeds per kg: 15,000-20,000 [5]. After extraction the seeds should be placed in the sun which helps to ensure that any beetles emerge. Damaged seeds can then be removed either using a gravity table separator or flotation in water. "The hard impervious seed coat inhibits water uptake and the seed requires pretreatment before sowing to promote rapid and uniform germination. Mechanical, hot water and sulphuric acid treatments have all been used successfully. Hot water treatment by soaking in water at 80°C [5] for 3 minutes followed by washing in cold water has been most widely used. Mechanical nicking is likely to give higher germination, but is generally only efficient for small seedlots" [5]. It is important not to sow the seed too deeply (below 2 cm) [6] and, where possible, competing species should be controlled either by slashing or by appropriate chemicals. Site preparation is important as slow early growth makes young transplants susceptible to competition from weeds and is a major limitation in establishment of hedgerows in pastures in Australia. The success of direct sowing depends on timing, land preparation and weed management. "It has also been used in wider land rehabilitation and regeneration efforts in some areas, sometimes using aerial seeding, e.g. in Guam" [5]. [5, 6]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Seeds of L. leucocephala are predated by seed-feeding bruchids and other beetles like Acanthoscelides, Araecerus fasciculatus, Araecerus levipennis, Cathartus quadricollis, Heteropsylla cubana and Statherotis.

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[5]

5

[Diseases]: Two important diseases caused by fungal pathogens, Camptomeris leaf spot and gummosis (Camptomeris leucaenae), have been reported as well a a set of lesser-known rusts and other diseases of currently minor importance. [5] [Others]: "Weediness can be a problem in many agricultural situations or where used in land rehabilitation" [5].

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Kompong Thom, Siem Reap, Pursat, Kandal, Phnom Penh. [7]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Spain, USA [9] [Introduced]: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Cambodia, Cote d'Ivoire, China, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Ghana, Grenada, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Puerto Rico, South Africa, Sri Lanka, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Vietnam, Virgin Islands (US) [9]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Chemical Properties]: "Leucaena also contains the toxic amino-acid mimosine which has antimitotic and depilatory effects on animals. It occurs in high concentrations in the growing tips (8-12%), young leaves (4-6%) and young pods and seeds (4-5%)" [6].

W. Further readings5 : Wit). Myforest 21(2):65-70. [5]

Hughes CE. 1998. Leucaena; a genetic resources handbook. Tropical forestry Papers No. 37. Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford and Department for International Development. [5]

MacDicken GK. 1994. Selection and management of nitrogen fixing trees. Winrock International, and Bangkok: FAO. [5]

National Academy of Sciences. 1977. Leucaena: Promising forage tree crop for the tropics. National Academy Press. Washington D.C. [5]

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Bhasker V, Rao NS. 1985. Pollination biology of subabul or ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala Lam de

6

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA. [5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [7] Various Authors, 1973: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-nam (Fascicule 18th), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. [8] Pham Hoàng Hô, 1972: Thu`c Vât Chùng. Saigon [9] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

source)

7

[10] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Litchi chinensis Sonn.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Litchi chinensis Sonn.] ³

Litchi chinensis Sonn. [1]

B. English name (s)

³

lychee, litchi [1]

C. Synonym

³

[Synonyms of Lichi ssp. chinensis]: Dimocarpus litchi Lour.

A. Latin name

(s)

[1, 5], Litchi sinense J. Gmelin [1], Nephelium litchi Cambess. [1, 5] - [Synonyms of Lic ssp. philippinensis]: Euphoria didyma Blanco [1], Litchi philippinensis Radlk. [1]

-

[Synonyms of Lic ssp. javensis]: Litchi chinensis Sonn. f. glomeriflora Radlk. [1, 5]

D. Other1

³

cérisier de la Chine, litchi de Chine (France) [1] - litsi (Indonesian),

klèngkeng,

klengkeng

,

kalèngkeng,

kalengkeng, lengkeng (Indonesia) [1] - laici, kelengkang (Malaysia) [1] - letsias, alupag, arupag, mamata (Philippines) [1] - kyet-mouk, lin chi, lam yai (Myanmar) [1] - ngèèw (Laos) [1, 3] - linchee, litchi, see raaman (Thailand) [1] - v[ar]i,tu Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

h[us] [1] cay vai, tu hu [3] (Vietnam) - Chinesische

1

Haselnuß, Litchipflaume (Germany) [5] - lizi, jingli, huoshan, danli (China) [5] - lichi (Bangladesh) [5]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

KUeln Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kuléén [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Sapindaceae

Genus: Litchi Species: Litchi chinensis Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium sized to large, evergreen and long lived tree, with a height of 12 m [5] (9-15 m [7]) but often also up to 30 m [1]. Trunk short and stocky. Crown dense, broader than high, rounded and symmetrical. Branches are crooked or twisting in some cultivars or fairly straight and upright in other cultivars, they can reach to the ground. [Bark]: The bark is smooth, brittle and of grey color. [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, pinnately compound, with 2-5 pairs of leaflets. Leafstalks are 3-8 mm long. Leaflets are elliptic oblong to spear-shaped, (3-) 8-11(-16) cm x 1.75-4 cm, smooth and leathery, reddish when young, glossy and deep green above, whitish waxy beneath. [Flowers]: Inflorescences (=panicles) many-branched , 5-30 cm long and many-flowered. Flowers are small, yellowish-white, functionally male or female. Outer flower leaves 4. Inner flower leaves absent. Stamens (=male organ) 6(-10), filaments in male flowers at least twice the length of the calyx, in female flowers very short. [Fruits] The fruit (=drupe) is rounded, ovoid or heart-shaped ca. 3-3.5 cm in diameter. Exocarp thin, The fleshy edible portion is the aril, an outgrowth of the seed stalk, in good fruits comprising 70-80% of the fruit weight. Aril white and translucent. Seed 10-23 mm x 6-12 mm, brown. [1, 3, 5, 6, 7]

I. Wood properties: The wood is nearly indestructible and very durable, although it is brittle. [1, 3, 5]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Occurs between 25°N and 18°N [2]. In China and India, it is grown between 15° and 30° N [7]. The cultivated lychee originated in the region between southern China, northern Vietnam and Malaysia. Wild trees grow in elevated and low rainforests. [1, 2, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Grows in an altitude range of 100-400 m a.s.l. [2] with an uniform rainfall regime, a mean annual rainfall of 1,500-3,000 mm [2] (700-2,800 mm [7], 1,000 mm [5], 1,200 mm) and an optimum between 1,000-1,700 mm [7]. Litchi is native to tropical and warm tropical areas with short dry and cool winters without frost and to long hot summers. Mean annual temperature: 20-24°C [2] (20-25°C [5]). Mean

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leathery, bright red to purplish, nearly smooth or scaly to densely set with flat, conical, pointed warts.

2

maximum temperature of hottest month: 24-30°C [5]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 3-15°C [5]. Absolute minimum temperature: 5°C [2] (Mature trees have survived temperatures as low as -4°C, when fully hardened off [7]). Reported temperature range for growth is 15-40°C with the optimum between 20-35°C [7]. Tolerates a dry season length of 0-3 months but is susceptible to wind damage and needs protection. [2, 3, 5, 7]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : n.a.

M. soil and site conditions : L. chinensis grows in well drained alluvial soils as found on riversides and hilly areas with a medium texture, rich in organic matter and good nutrient supply. In China it is cultivated in sandy or clayey loam, 'river mud', moist sandy clay and even heavy clay. It needs acid soil with a pH below 7 [2] (between 5.5 and 7.5 or lower [5], 5.0-8.5 [7]). However, soils with pH levels of 6.0 to 6.5 are suited best [7]. If the soil is deficient in lime, it must be added. Lychee trees will not tolerate standing water, but require very moist soil, so regulary watering is necessary for an active growth. The trees are very sensitive to damage from salts in the soil or in water. [5, 6, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Wood]: The wood has only a few uses.

3

[1, 3, 5] [Non-wood]: Lychees are primarily cultivated for their fruits. The fruit is peeled and the seed is used in traditional medicine, decoctions of the root, bark and flowers are gargled. Lychee also produces honey, ,juice and wine. The bark contains tannin. [1, 3, 5] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class [8]

P. Silviculture and management : [Establishment]: The recommended spacing is 6 m x 6 m (280 trees/ha) for upright cultivars such as 'Kwai Mai Pink'. More vigorous cultivars such as 'Tai So', 'Souey Tung' and 'Haak Yip' can be planted at 9-12 m between the rows and 6 m between trees (140-185 trees/ha). [1]

[Management]: "Orchards need to be thinned out to 70 trees/ha. The density of the closely planted orchards is halved twice at ages 10 and 15 years approximately" [1]. For the development of strong trees with a permanent structure for an easy harvest it is nessesary to do pruning. [1, 6]

Q. Propagation : Seed storage is intermediate and recalcitrant. Vegetative propagation is done by cuttings, air layering ( rates of success are usually not less than 95% [1]), grafting (useful for top-working older trees [1]) and tissue culture [2]). The stand establishment is done by planting stock. Trees propagated by air layering usually produce commercial crops after 3-6 years [1]. "To grow a plant from seeds it is important to know that seeds remain viable for no more than a day or two under dry conditions. Young seedlings grow vigorously until they reach 7 or 8 inches in height. They will stay at this height for up to two years without further noticeable growth. Wedge and bud grafts are possible, but seldom used" [6]. [1, 2, 6]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "The Erinose mite (Eriophyes litchii) is the major pest of the foliage. Severe infestations may damage developing flowers and fruit and kill the growing points. Erinose mite can be very difficult to eradicate; dipping air layers in dimethoate helps prevent the introduction of the mite into orchards. Several caterpillars (Phycita leucomilta, Lobesia spp. and Prosotas spp.) attack developing panicles and flowers. One or two sprays of methomyl during the season give effective control. Other recorded pests are: Ceroplastes, Conopomorpha sinensis, Indarbela dea, Kerria lacca, Lymantria dispar,

and ripe fruits attract birds, so it may be necessary to cover the plants with protective netting. [1, 2, 5] [Diseases]: Diseases recorded include bark canker and brown leaf felting . Known fungus diseases are Armillaria mellea, Armillaria tabescens, Botryosphaeria, Cephaleuros virescens, Fusarium oxysporum, Gloeosporium, Glomerella cingulata,

Oospora,

Peronophythora litchii,

Phoma,

Physimerus, Pythium, Thanatephorus cucumeris. A parasitic alga (Cephaleuros sp.) occasionally attacks trees causing loss of vigour. Susceptible cultivars such as 'Souey Tung' and 'Haak Yip' can be protected with two sprays of copper, before and after the wet season. [1, 2, 5] [Others]: L. chinensis is susceptible to wind damage and needs protection. [3]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : No information available.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Maladera matrida, Tessaratoma papillosa [2]. Insecticides provide control of bugs [1]. Both immature

4

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World distribution]: [Native]: S-China, N-Vietnam and Malaysia. Also found in cool highlands of Thailand and Bali (Indonesia) [3] [Exotic]: Vietnam, Thailand, China, Cambodia, Honduras, USA, South-Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Reunion, Mauritius, India, Myanmar, Indonesia, Australia, Philippines, New Zealand, Brazil, Hong Kong, Israel, Mexico, Taiwan, Zanzibar. [2, 5]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (1992) : Edible fruits and nuts. Plant Resources of South-East Asia, No.2 Prosea , Bogor, Indonesia [2]

X. References: [1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition) (CD-ROM)

5

[3] Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of South East Asia. [4] Antje Bertram, 2006: Own observations. [5] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/botanicSearch.asp (Internet source) [6] http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/lychee.html (Internet source) [7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=1357&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source) [8] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Mangifera indica L.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Mangifera indica L.] ³

Mangifera indica L.

B. English name (s)

³

mango [2]

C. Synonym

³

Mangifera amba Forssk., Mangifera anisodora Blanco,

A. Latin name

(s)

Mangifera arbor Bonti, Mangifera bompardii Kosterm., Mangifera domestica Gaertn., Mangifera gladiata Bojer, Mangifera kukulu Blume, Mangifera linnaei Korth. ex Hassk., Mangifera maritima Lechaume, Mangifera oroph. [4]

D. Other1

³

mango (Ethiopia) [6] - manga (Arabia) [6] - am (Bangladesh) [6] - thar-yetthi, thayet thayt-hypu (Myanmar) [6] - mangga, mango, paho (Philippines) [6] - mangue, manguier, margot (France) [6] - Mangobaum, Mango (Germany) [6] - aam, am, amb (India) [6] - ampelam, mangga, mempelam (Indonesia) [6] - mwเngx (Laos) [6] - muyembe (Uganda) [6] - ampelam, mangga, mempelam (Malaysia) [6] - mango (Nepal) [6] -

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

amba (Sri Lanka) [6] - manga, mang๓, manguira (Spain) [6] -

1

maembe, muembe, mwembe (E-Africa) [6] - mammuang, mamuang (Thailand) [6] - xo[af]I, xoai (Vietnam) [6]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

sVay Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sva:y [1], svaay [6] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales

Family: Anacardiaceae Genus: Mangifera Species: Mangifera indica Source :[ 4]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium to large evergreen tree with a height of 15-25 m [2] (0-20 m [3], 10-45 m [7]) and a 2-3 m short bole with DBH of 60-100 cm [2] (-120 cm [7]). Crown is spreading, umbrella-shaped to bushy, dense and dark green. Root system consists of a long tap root and a dense mass of surface roots up to 2.5 m deep enabling the tree to find the moisture necessary for flowering and flushing during the dry season. [Bark]: The bark is grey brown, shallow fissured and scaly. [Leaves]: M. indica renews its leaves irregularly at all seasons of the year. Leaves are spirally arranged, simple, narrowly elliptic to spear-shaped or oblong, 8-40 cm x 2-10 cm. Leaf-base pointed, apex blunt and the margin often faintly wavy. The lateral veins 12-30 pairs are visible on both surfaces, intercostal veins netlike, distinct below, leafstalks are 1.5 cm-10 cm long and its base swollen.

(=petals). Petals creamish to pinkish in color with 3-5 ridges on the inner face, 1 fertile stamen (=male organ) and 4 infertile stamen (=staminodes). The filaments are free in a cushion-shaped disc, 5 lobed or notched and the style lateral. [Fruits] The fruit (=drupe) varies greatly in shape and size up to 30 cm x 10 cm. The skin is yellowishgreen to purplish when mature and pulp is pale yellow to orange, fibrous or without fibers, with a sweet to acid taste. The drupe contains one seed with a hard endocarp. [2, 4, 6, 7]

I. Wood properties: Heartwood pale yellowish-brown to reddish-brown, darkening on exposure, not clearly demarcated from the pale yellowish-brown sapwood. The grain is wavy, with a moderately coarse texture. The freshly cut wood is scentless. With a calorific value of 4,200 kcal/kg, the wood makes an excellent charcoal and firewood. [6]

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[Flowers]: The flowers are bisexual, with 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) and 5 inner flower leaves

2

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Native to tropical Asia (Indo-Malaysian region) but cultivated all over the world in subtropical and tropical regions. Approximate limits: 22°N to 22°S [4]. It occurs naturally in broadleaved evergreen forests, deciduous forests and other rain forests and is frequently found in coastal areas. In the tropics mango trees can be found in home gardens and scattered in non-irrigated field borders. Orchards are common in the subtropics and are gaining importance in SE-Asia. [3, 4, 6]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : M. indica thrives in the tropics and subtropics up to 1,200 m a.s.l [6], but commercial cultivars cannot be grown above 600 m [4] as the climate is too cool. It grows in bimodal or uniform summer- or winterrainfall regimes with a mean annual rainfall of 750-2,500 mm [4] (500-2,500 mm [6], 300-2,600 mm [7]). At high elevations a dry season lasting between 3-8 months [4] is necessary for fruit production. In the subtropics, the cold months ensure excellent floral induction, but late frosts are a major risk because tender parts of the tree may be killed. Mean annual temperature: 12- 42°C [4] (19-35°C [6]). Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 28-49°C [4]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 9-22°C [4]. Absolute minimum temperature: >5°C [4]. "A few hours of temperatures from -5 to 1°C may damage or kill fruit-bearing trees. Young trees and actively growing shoots are likely to be killed at -1°C. Flowers are not frost tolerant and fruits are liable to chilling injury at 4-10°C or 8-12°C, depending on the cultivar" [7]. Mango is shade tolerant but also thrives in full sun. The tree is drought tolerant, weed tolerant and is able to withstand flooding for short periods.

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[2, 4, 6, 7]

3

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : M. indica and its cultivars grow in a wide range of soil types, especially deep and well drained sandy loams or heavy clays. A pH range of 5.5-7 [4] (5.5 to 7.5 [6]) is best suited, however the full range is reported to be 4.3-8.5 [7]. It is not tolerant of saline soils. For good growth, it needs a deep soil to accommodate the extensive root system (rooting depth 2.5 m). However, even shallow and impervious soils produce mangoes. "Poor soil with easy access to water and nutrients stimulates the growth at the expense of flowering" [4]. In general it performs well on alluvial soils, granite soils, lateritic soils and sandy soils. [2, 4, 6, 4]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: M. indica is a multipurpose tree species providing wood for veneer, sawn wood, indoor construction, meat-chopping blocks, posts, stakes, furniture, carpentry, flooring, boxes, crates and

boat building (canoes and dugouts). "With a calorific value of 4,200 kcal/kg, the wood makes excellent charcoal and firewood" [6]. The wood is also used as a substrate for mushroom cultivation. [4, 5, 6] [Non-wood]: It is primarily used for its edible fruits which can be eaten in 3 distinct ways, depending largely on the cultivar: Unripe (mature green, very popular in Cambodia, Thailand and the Philippines), ripe (common throughout the world) and processed at various stages of maturity in the form of pickles or chutneys, dried slices, canned slices in syrup, juice and puree or paste. The fruit is surrounded by golden, juicy flesh, rich in vitamins A and C. Mango leaves improve soil fertility when used as mulch for crops. They are also occasionally used as cattle fodder, but large quantities can cause death. Seed kernels, as a byproduct of processing can be used as feed for cattle and poultry. Various parts of the mango tree are used in traditional medicines: Charred and pulverized leaves make a plaster to remove warts and also act as a styptic. Seeds are used to treat stubborn colds and coughs, obstinate diorrhea and bleeding piles. The bark is astringent, homeostatic and antirheumatic and also the source of a yellowish-brown dye used for silk. M. indica is an important honey plant, secreting large quantities of nectar. It also has great significance in Hindu religious ceremonies. [4, 6] [Others]: It is an important component of agroforestry systems in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in Africa. Its umbrella-shaped crown makes the mango tree a suitable shade- and shelter tree for people and their livestock. It also acts as a firebreak and can be used for shelterbelts and hedges. Young mango is often interplanted with other fruits and vegetables and the tree is a valued component of the

[4, 6]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No Class. [8]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: It occurs naturally in broadleaved evergreen forests, deciduous forests and other rain forests and is frequently found in coastal areas. In the tropics mango trees can be found in home gardens and scattered in non-irrigated field borders. Orchards are common in the sub-tropics and are gaining importance in SE-Asia. M. indica is not important as a forest tree as it is rarely found in abundance in forests, but wherever the tree is available it is exploited. {Establishment]: Seedlings are planted early in the rainy season. In Thailand the recommended st

spacing for plantations is 12.8 m x 12.8 m or about 69-156 trees/ha. Irrigation in the 1 years after planting promotes flushing (and suppresses flowering), resulting in a rapid growth of the tree size. Irrigation also widens the scope for intercropping, for example, with papaya, banana, pineapple or vegetables, during the establishment phase.

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traditional homegarden agroforestry systems.

4

[Management]: When the trees are big enough to produce a substantial crop, irrigation is stopped, or at least interrupted long enough to allow a flower initiation. Trees of most cultivars have a dense canopy, so only little weeding is necessary. Pruning should be conducted to ensure good, balanced and productive growth. In fruiting trees, pruning should be confined to the removal of dead wood and branches broken or weakened by pests and diseases. The main stem of the hardy trees is allowed to grow to 1 m before being topped to give well-distributed branches. "M.indica shows no coppicing abilities" [2]. [Harvesting]: The fruit is harvested by hand, either by climbing the tree or by using a picking bag with a cutting edge mounted on a bamboo pole. "It is difficult to assess maturity from the appearance of the fruit. Mature-green fruit should have attained full size, the 'cheeks' should be well-developed and the endocarp should have hardened. There are more objective standards for major cultivars based on degrees Brix, specific gravity and firmness, but the simplest guide is number of days from full bloom or fruit set as established under an ASEAN research project" [5]. [4, 5, 6]

Q. Propagation : Vegetative propagation is done by cuttings, air layering and grafting. For stand establishment natural regeneration and planting stock are used. The seeds (50 seeds/kg) should be sown under shade, and later the seedlings also require a certain amount of shade. Seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant. There is a complete loss in viability within 7 days in open storage at 30°C. Viability can be maintained for 120 days with subimbibed seeds stored at 15°C. There is no loss in viability of excised embryonic

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axes on fast desiccation to 11.8% moisture content. Seeds are damaged by chilling to temperatures

5

below 3-6°C. They require no pretreatment, but nicking enhances germination. Fresh seeds germinate at temperatures of 5-40°C, with germination being most rapid at 25-40°C. It takes about 20 days for the seeds to germinate. The germination rate of fresh seeds is generally over 80%, with the normal rate ranging from 60 to 90%. Preferably, large and fully developed seeds should be sown. Sowing complete fruits or seeds with the pulp attached delays germination by up to 7 weeks and germination rate is only 30-50%. Careful removal of the endocarp, releasing the seed, results in seedlings with straighter stems and roots. However, this method is not feasible for commercial production of planting stock. Mature mango seeds have a high moisture content and cannot withstand desiccation (=fast drying). A desiccation below 30% moisture content will kill them. Wet storage of seeds at 15°C is possible, but germinating seeds develop roots about 5 cm long and shoots about 8 cm long after 6 months. Those that are raised in nursery beds can be transplanted without much difficulty before the taproot has developed to any great extent. However, seedlings raised in baskets or containers are preferable. Seedlings are planted early in the rainy season. [4, 6]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Insect pests: "A mealybug (Rastrococcus invadens) has recently invaded Africa, where it causes serious damage to mango and other crops. In the greenhouse, thrips often turn leaves rusty brown. Malathion is the conventional spray for insect pests. Sulphur works on mites. A long-horn

beetle (Rhytidodera simulans) bores into the trunk and thick branches. Branches may be killed but the whole tree retains its viability. The larvae of the mango weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae) feed on the pulp and damage the fruit" [6]. Other pests include: Idioscopus, Plocaederus ruficarnis. [4, 6] [Diseases]: Fungus diseases: "Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata, conidial stage Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) distorts and turns developing leaves black and disfigures developing fruit. The fungal infection may spread to fresh young growth. It can be controlled with bimonthly applications of copper spray or captain as a growth flush begins and until the flowers open. Spraying is resumed when the fruit begins to form. The flower panicles, young fruit and leaves are subject to powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae), especially in rainy weather or frequent fog. A spray of powdered kelp at bud break will often control it. Sodium bicarbonate and fungicide sprays are also effective. Other diseases include the flower malformation caused by Fusarium moniliforme and spread by mites, a bacterial canker, which is becoming a pressing disease problem and fungi like Gibberella fujikuroi, Glomerella cingulata. [4, 6]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Sihanoukville, Kampot, Koh Kong, Phnom Penh, Kandal, Siem Reap, Battambang, Kampong Cham,

Meanchey, Takeo, Mondulkiri. [1]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar [6] [Introduced]: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Barbados, Benin, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, China, Colombia, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, French Guiana, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Laos, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Samoa, Sao Tome et Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan, Surinam, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Venezuela, Vietnam, Virgin Islands (US), Zanzibar [6]

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Kratie, Kampong Speu, Kampong Chnang, Kampong Thom, Pursat, Prey Veng, Sway Rieng, Banteay

6

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "The generic name is derived from ‘mango’, the Indian name for the fruit, and the Latin ‘fero’ (‘I bear’)" [6]. [History]: "It has been cultivated in India for several thousand years and reached Africa about 1000 years ago" [4]. [Fruit properties]: "The mango fruit is composed of 11-18% skin, 14-22% flesh and 60-75% stone. Mango flesh contains per 100 g: water 78-85 g, protein 0.3-0.8 g, fat 0.1-0.2 g, carbohydrates 13.2-20 g, fibre 0.6-0.7 g, calcium 9-25 mg, phosphorus 10-15 mg, and iron 0.1-0.2 mg. Energy value is 225350 kJ per 100 g. Mango is a particularly rich source of vitamins: 100 g flesh contains 14-62 mg vitamin C, 0.03-0.09 mg vitamin B1 and 0.05-0.08 vitamin B2" [5]. [Breeding]: "M. indica contains hundreds of cultivars now pan-tropical and even sub-tropical. "The main breeding objectives are dwarf tree size, good storing and eating qualities, regular cropping and good cropping in wet tropics, early or late season cropping and resistance to diseases and pests. In South-East Asia, improvements in mango production have resulted from selection within populations of polyembryonic seedlings. Programmes based on hybridisation are being conducted" [4]. [Toxicology]: "In sensitive individuals, ingestion of the fruit or skin contact with the juice may cause a rash like that of poison ivy" [6].

W. Further readings5 : Arogba SS, 1997. Physical , chemical and functional properties of Nigerian Mango (Mangifera indica)

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kernel and its processed flour. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 73(3):321-328.

7

[4]

Bonad ND, 1982. Origin and distribution of Mango. Philippine Geography Journal, 26(1):44-52. [4]

Chadha, K.L., 1985. Mango cultivation. ExtensionBulletin No 9. M/S Prithvvi Printers, Bangalore, India. 28 pp. [5]

de Laroussilhe, F., 1980. Le manguier. Maisonneuve & Larose, Paris. 312 pp. [5]

Lahiry AK, 1995. Sterilization of mango wood (Mangifera indica L.) without heat. Document International Research Group on Wood Preservation, No. 95-30065:7 pp.; [Paper presented at the 26th annual meeting, HelsingOr, Denmark, 11-16 June, 1995.]; 9 ref. [4]

Lal Singh & Abdul Aziz Khan, 1939. Relation of growth to fruitbearing in mangoes. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 9(6): 835-867. [5]

Mendoza Jr., D.B. & Wills, R.B.H. (Editors), 1984. Mango: fruit development, post harvest physiology and marketing in ASEAN. ASEAN Food Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 111 pp. [5]

Mukherjee SK, 1972. Origin of Mango (Mangifera indica). Economic Botany, 26(3):260-264. [4]

Mukherjee SK, 1985. Systematic and Bio Geographic Studies of Crop Gene Pools. Vol. 1. Mangifera

[4]

Musvoto C, Campbell BM, 1995. Mango trees as components of agroforestry systems in Mangwende, Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems, 32(3):247-260; 24 ref. [4]

PCARRD, 1978. The Philippines recommends for mango. PCARRD Technical Bulletin Series No 38. 70 pp. [5]

Saw LG, 1987. Conservation of the Mango and its relatives in Peninsular Malaysia. Report to WWF. Kepong, Malaysia: FRIM. [4]

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L. IBPGR.

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Singh, L.B., 1968 (reprint from 1960 edition). The mango. Botany, cultivation and utilization. Leonard Hill, London. 438 pp. [5]

Verheij E.W.M. Coronel R.E. (1991) PROSEA - Plant Resources of South-East Asia; 2 - Edible fruits and nuts. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=369920 [7]

Whiley, A.W., 1984. Mango. In: Page, P.E.(Compiler): Tropical tree fruits for Australia. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Information Series QI 83018, Brisbane. pp. 25-31. [5]

Zaman Z, Maiti B, 1994. Insects and mites infesting seedlings of mango in West Bengal. Environment and Ecology, 12(3):734-736; 11 ref. [4]

X. References:

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[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations.

9

[2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [5] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source). [7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source). [8] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³ ³

Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen [1] sapodilla, noseberry [6]: chicle gum, chicle tree,naseberry, sapodilla 8

C. Synonym

³

Achras zapota L., Achras sapota L., Pouteria mammosa, Nispero achras, Manilkara achras (Miller) Fosberg, Manilkara zapotilla (Jacqu.) Gilly; Sapota achras Miller, S. zapotilla (Coville) [1,6,26]

D. Other1

³

lomut (Cambodia); sawo manila, ciku, sawo londo, (Indonesia);

lamud

(Laos);

ciku

(Malaysia);

chico

(Philippines); lamut, lamut farang (Thailand); xabôche, hông xiem, tam luc (Vietnam; sapotillier, sapotille, (French), nispero (Spanish);[1,6,26].

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E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

1

lµút Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ l`mut [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Ebenales Family: Sapotaceae Gunus: Manilkara Species: Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen

Source :[ 4 ; 6 ; 11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A large evergreen forest tree, over 30 m tall and with up to 150 cm diameter; (cultivated trees reach 9-15 m and generally not more than 50 cm diameter) well branched, with a sympodial structure, young branches growing horizontally. Bole cylindrical and long with forest-grown trees [1]. A shrub 2-8 m tall [4]. An evergreen upright tree, usually up to 20 m tall, but occasionally reaching 30 m; trunk low-branched, with a pyramid-shaped to globose crown [6]. A tree, 10-15 m high, white latexproducing [13]. Large, evergreen fforest tree, over 30 m high, up to 1.5 m diameter; 9-15 m wen cultivated, depeending on location, in general does not exceed 50 cm in diameter. Produces a dense crown and a characteristic, sympodial branching system, in which the young branches are arranged horizontally. Bole cylindrical, long, especially in forest-grown trees [26].

[Bark]: Dark brown, deeply fissured, forming small rectangular flakes. When cut the bark exudes a sticky white latex (chicle) used in the production of chewing gum [1]. Bark rough, dark-brown [6]. Bark dark brown and deeeply fissured, forming small rectangular pieces.The tree has an extensive root system [26]. [Leaves]: Spirally arranged and clustered at the branch tips, simple, elliptic or oblong, apex obtuse to shortly acuminate, coriaceous, shiny, glabrous when mature. Secondary veins forming a wide angle with the midrib [1,26]. Leaves alternate, ovate-elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, 3.5-15.0 cm long, and 1.5-

green, with prominent midrib below and numerous parallel, lateral nerves. Leaf stalk 1.0-3.5 cm long [6]. Leaves elliptic, opposite to nearly alternate, forming bunches towards the end of twigs [13]. [Flowers]: Greenish, solitary, axillary, cyathiform or campanulate, with a brown, pubescent peduncle; 6 sepals, 6 corolla lobes [1,26]. White, 6-merous flowers single on 1-2 cm long flower stalk in upper leaf corners, up to 1.5 cm in diameter, brown hairy outside; 6-merous flowers in leaf axils [6,13]. [Fruit]: Globular to ovoid berry with a rough brown skin, containing 1-12 shiny brown or black seeds (frequently 5), surrounded by a brownish, sweet, juicy, scented flesh [1,26]. The fruit is highly prized and considered one of the best in Central America [1]. A globose, ovoid or ellipsoid berry, 3-8 x 3-6 cm, with dull reddish to yellow-brown thin skin, covered by sandy brown scurf. Flesh juicy, soft, yellow to red-brown, sweet with 0-12 oblong, 2 cm long brown or black seeds inside. All parts rich in white latex [6]. Fruits globose or oblong berries, 3-8 cm long, with rough, brown skin. Flesh yellow-brown with embedded granules, soft and sweet after reaching full ripeness, the taste resembling that of overmature pears. Seeds black, flat, about 2 cm long [6,13]. Flowering and fruiting continues throughout the year [1].

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7.0 cm wide; cuneate or obtusely pointed at both ends, often emarginate, entire, smooth, glossy dark

2

I. Wood properties: The wood is homogeneous, deep red, very hard, dense, resistant and durable [1]. Wood hard and durable; some of the species of Sapotaceae contain silica, increasing the resistance against termites and also marine borers when used in harbour construction. Dimensions and technological properties increased the demand for Sapotaceous timber, which is an important component of tropical rain forests in Malaysia and Kalimantan (Borneo) [11]. The valuable wood is homogenous, deep red in colour, very hard, strong, tough, dense, resistant and durable. It is suitable for heavy construction, furniture, joinery and tool handles [26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Originally from Central America, Mexico, West Indies; now widespread over tropics of North America, Mexico, Central America, Caribbean, South America; in Asia, [China], [India], Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indochina, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines [12]. M. zapota is a species of the lowland rainforest. Trees grow well in a wide range of climatic conditions from wet tropics to dry cool subtropical areas. But they prefer a moist hot climate similar to that found at medium to low elevations in tropical areas, such as in coastal regions. Fruiting is not adversely affected by heavy rainfall, but high temperatures (42-43ºC) are harmful. Trees prefer full sunshine and are fairly hardy and resistant to wind damage when mature. Young trees are frost tender and may be killed at freezing point or below, whereas mature trees can withstand short periods of temperatures of about -3ºC [26].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : M. zapota is a species of the lowland rainforest. Trees grow well in a wide range of climatic conditions

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from wet tropics to dry cool subtropical areas. But they prefer a moist hot climate similar to that found

3

at medium to low elevations in tropical areas, such as in coastal regions [26].The following indicates the estimated biophysical and geographical limits: Elevation range 0-600 m a.s.l.; mean annual precipitation 750 -2500 mm/ m², distributed over the summer with 2 peaks; mean annual temperature 23-31ºC, minimum tolerated temperature minus 3 to 0ºC [12]. Limits of the area of distribution approximately 25ºN to 10º N [12]. M. zapota is an adaptable species, found up to 2500 m elevation. Survives light frost, long drought, strong winds and salt spray. However, it does best at lower altitudes. A species of lowland rain forests, from sea level to about 900 m elevation a.s.l., with annual precipitation between 1250 and 2500 mm. Best production is achieved in costal regions. Rainfall does not damage fruit but high temperatures beyond 40ºC are harmful. Plants are susceptible to frost when young but can resist light frost of short duration when older [6].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers rich, well drained sandy loams; tolerates moist soils, including very saline soils. The tree has an extensive root system and prefers well-drained soils, e.g. alluvial or sandy sediments, situated near the sea, while it grows not well on clay soils [1].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Wood very hard, siliceous, suitable for furniture, posts, heavy timber for heavy construction [26]. [Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh or processed to sherbets, ice cream, butter, jam or syrup [6]. M. zapota is mainly cultivated for its fruit, which is highly prized and considered one of the best in Central America. It is eaten raw or made into jam, preferably when slightly overripe, and in Cuba and Brazil it is often made into a sherbet. The fruit keeps for about 6 weeks in a refrigerator at around 0ºC. The juice may be boiled into syrup or fermented into vinegar [26]. Latex formerly used as basis for chewing gum (chicle in Indian-Brazilian language), today partly replaced by synthetic products; many industrial applications [6] Wild and cultivated trees in America are tapped for their milky latex, which coagulates into chicle, the principal constituent of chewing gum before the advent of synthetics. In recent years, synthetic substitutes have been replacing chicle, so the trees are mainly grown for their fruit. The gum is also used in transmission belts, dental surgery, and as a substitute for gutta percha, a coagulum of the latex of Palaquium spp., also in the Sapotaceae family, which had many applications in industry before the advent of plastics [26]. Seeds,

and ulcers; for neuralgia, leaf with tallow is applied as a compress on the temples. Seeds are antipyretic, and when ground with water they act as a diuretic. The plant is a source of sapotin, a glucoside used in medicine as a febrifuge. In Indonesia, the flowers are used as one of the ingredients of a powder that is rubbed on the body of a woman after childbirth. In Cambodia, tannin from the bark is used to cure diarrhoea and fever [26]. Seeds contain hydrocyanic acid and should be removed before eating the fruit [26]. Tannin from the bark is used to tan ship sails and fishing tackle. Cultivated as an ornamental tree [26].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included [18]

P. Silviculture and management : Trees are spaced 7-12 m apart, depending on the growth habit of the cultivar. They require irrigation during the dry season for the 1st 3-4 years, after which they are able to withstand drought. If necessary, young plants should be staked. Response to fertilizer is good, and 3-4 small applications a year of a nitrogen-containing fertilizer are beneficial. Pruning to shape the young trees is practised for

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flowers and tannin have medicinal uses[6]. : A leaf decoction is taken for fever, haemorrhage, wounds

4

the 1st 5 or 6 years. Planting a strong windbreak is also advised to protect against prevailing winds [26]. No specific information on pollination has been found, but honeybees collect nectar from the flowers and may contribute to the pollination. Flowers are bisexual; the stigma extends beyond the corolla. The tree flowers and fruits throughout the year; fruit take about 4 months to mature. Seedlings may take 5-8 years to bear fruit, while grafted varieties take only 2-3 years from planting out [26].

Q. Propagation : Seed storage behaviour is intermediate; viability can be maintained for 24 months in air-dry storage at 5ºC [26]. Seeds germinate after about 30 days without any treatment and with up to 80% success rate; they exhibit an epigeal type of germination. The seeds for rootstock are sown in a sandy seedbed about 2 cm apart and at a depth of about 1 cm. After a few months, the seedlings are transplanted into polybags. They grow very slowly; even with nitrogen application rootstocks are not ready for grafting for 2-3 years [26] Commercial varieties propagated by vegetative means, air-layering and grafting. For air-layering one uses 2-year-old branches, 46-60 cm long, 1 cm thick and suitably leafy. The air-layered material is removed from the mother tree after about 5 months (2 months to callose and 3 months for rooting). For grafting, seedlings are used as the stock, or seedlings of Mimusops or Madhuca of related genera in the same family. Saddle grafting and budding are practiced. Deep cultivation followed by harrowing is recommended as measure of site preparation before planting. If strong winds prevail planting a windbreak is recommended. In adequately irrigated situations the recommended spacing is 9x9 ºCm,

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in drier positions 7.5x7.5 m. If necessary young plants must be staked. Interplanting with leguminous

5

crops is recommended for the first 6 years [1].

R. Hazards and protection : Insect pests: Bactrocera dorsalis [1], Nephopterix eugraphella [2]. In some regions, larvae of Trypetidae fruit flies are serious pests, as they infest the ripe fruit and render it unfit for consumption. Ceratitis capitata, the Mediterranean fruit fly, and Anastrepha ludens, the Mexican fruit fly, are 2 of the most troublesome species. Rhyparida beetles may damage new leaves, and banana spotting bugs damage fruit, causing split lesions. Symptoms of fruit rot transmitted by Phytopthora palmivora are especially clear on lower fruits of the tree. Rusts Scopella sapotae and Uredo sapotae attack the leaves in the native range of the tree. A leaf spot (Septoria spp.) has been observed to cause defoliation of trees in Florida [26]. Insect pests: Bactrocera dorsalis [1], Nephopterix eugraphella [2] Fungus diseases: Banisia myrsusalis [3], Corticium salmonicolor, Phaeophleospora indica [4]. Footnotes: 1. a pest of mature fruits, 2. in India, 3. a leaf-folder, 4. a leaf-spot disease, in India [12].

S. Conservation : Not a threatened species;

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : All over Southeast Asia, mostly introduced; native in Central America and Mexico [12]..

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Bose TK, Mitra SK, eds, 1996. Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash. Chadha KL, 1992. Strategy for optimisation of productivity and utilization of sapota (Manilkara achras [M. zapota] (Mill.) Forberg.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 49(1):1-17; 55 ref. Chaudhary SM, Shete MB, Desai UT, 1995. Performance of some sapota (Manilkara achrus Mill Fosberg) cultivars under semi-arid region of Maharashtra. Recent Horticulture, 2(2):47-51; 7 ref. Lenka PC, Das DK, Samal B, 1996. Studies on floral biology and physical characteristics of sapota cultivars. Orissa Journal of Horticulture, 24(1/2):42-46; 5 ref. Sandhu MK, 1992. Standardization of grafting techniques in sapota (Achras zapota L.). Acta Horticulturae, No. 321:610-615; 5 ref.

in sapota (cv. Kalipatti). South Indian Horticulture, 42(5):303-308; 8 ref. Galán Saúco V, 1995. Woody tropical fruits in Spain. Biogenetic resources, plant material, production and prospects. Vida Rural, 2(24):60-63; [6 col. pl.]; 10 ref.

Popenoe W. 1974. Manual of the tropical and subtropical fruits. The Macmillann Company.

Rice RP, Rice LW, Tindall HD. 1987. Fruit and vegetable production in warm climates. Macmillan Press, London.

Tankard G. 1987. Tropical fruit. A guide to growing and using exotic fruits. Viking O’Neil.

Timyan J. 1996. Bwa Yo: important trees of Haiti. South-East Consortium for International Development. Washington D.C.

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Pampanna Y, Sulikeri GS, Hulamani NC, 1994. Effect of season on the success of softwood grafting

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X. References: 1) pp.

FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177

4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

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13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

7

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Melia azedarach L]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Melia azedarach L] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Melia azedarach L

³

China berry [2], azedarach, bead tree, China tree, Persian lilac, pride of India, syringa [7], Barbados lilac, white cedar, Chinaberry tree, umbrella tree [5]

C. Synonym

³

Melia australasica A. Juss. [5], Melia composita Willd. [5], Melia japonica G. Don [5], Melia japonica Don.[7], Melia sempervirens (L.) Sw. [5, 7], Melia toosendan Siebold & Zucc. [5], Melia dubia Cav. [6], Melia bukayan Royle. [7], Melia dubia Cavanilles [7]

D. Other1

³

white cedar (Trade name) [7] - arbol del paraiso, jacinta, paraiso (Spain) [5] - azedarach, lilas des Antilles, lilas des Indes (France) [5] - goda neem (Bangladesh) [5] - arvoresanta, cinamomo, jasmim-de-cachorro, jasmim-de-soldado, lilás-da-India, para-raios (Brazil) [5] - Paternosterbaum,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Zedarachbaum (Germany) [5] - mindi, gringging, marambung

1

(Indonesia) [5] - arebevu, bakam-limdo, bakarja, bakarjan, bakayan, bakon-limdi, betain, bokain, chik-bevu, deikna, dek, deknoi, drek, ghora nim, gowdnim, heb-bevu, hutchubevu, kadbevu, kaliyapa, karin vembu, kattu veppu, mahaneem, makanim, malla nim, mallay vembu, padrai, pejri, puvempu, sima veppu, taraka-vepa, thamaga, thurakavepa, turka, vaymbu, vilayati nim, yerri-vepa (India) [5] - albero dei paternostri (Italy) [5] - h'ienx, kadau s'a:ngz (Laos) [5] - mindi kecil (Malaysia) [5] - bagaluñga, balagañgo, paraiso (Philippines) [5] - bakain, white cedar (Pakistan) [5] - mindi kechil (Singapore) [5] - khian, lian (Thailand) [5] - xoan (Vietnam) [5]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

dkh‘an/ esþAexµac Source: [1]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ dâ:k hîën, sdau khmaô:h [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Geraniales Family: Meliaceae Genus: Melia Species: Melia azedarach L. Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Melia azedarach is typically a medium-sized tree [5] with a height up to 10-15 m [5] under dry conditions and up to 45 m [5] in closed moist forest (20 m [3], 10-25 m [2], 25-30 m [3], 45 m [7]). "It is generally deciduous, but some forms in the humid tropics (e.g. in Malaysia and Tonga) are

60, sometimes 120 cm [7], 120 cm in closed moist forest [5]). The crown is spreading with sparsely branched limbs [7]. "In India it is reported that there are three main forms. The most common form has rather long branches, which form a loose open crown and has rather a straggly growth habit. Another form, which is occasionally seen, has a dense, umbrella shaped crown. A third form flowers as a seedling and continues flowering at irregular intervals for a few years, by which time it has reached about 1.8 m in height and then proceeds to die." [5]. Branchlets are brown with prominent leaf scars and reddish-brown lenticels. M. azedarach has a shallow root system. It is short lived and may die already after 20 years [5]. [Bark]: The bark is smooth, greenish-brown to grey brown when young, turning grey and becoming thick and longitudinally fissured with age. [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, 20-40 cm long [7] (15-23 to 80 cm long [4], -25 cm long [5]), consisting of 3-7 pairs of leaflets [5] (3-11 pairs [7]) with a size of 2-10 cm x 0.6-3.8 cm [5] (2-8 cm long [4]). The leaflets are dark green above, often with sparse hairs along the veins and lighter green and generally smooth below with teethed or scalloped leaf margins. They have a pungent odor when crushed.

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evergreen" [7]. The bole is fluted below when old, with a DBH up to 60 cm [5] (100-150 cm [2, 4], 30-

2

[Flowers]: The inflorescence is an axillary, loose panicle 10-22 cm[5] (20 cm [7]) long, primary branches 5-7.5 cm[5] long and secondary branches up to 2 cm[5] long, bearing tufted flowers on second-year wood. The flower bracts are 3-10 mm long [5] and thread-like, the flower stalks are 2-3 mm long [5]. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are 5-lobed [7], green and 1 cm [7] long (1.5-2 mm[4]). The inner flower leaves (=petals) are also 5-lobed with a purplish, pinkish lavender to white color, fragrant, hairy and strap-shaped with a length of 0.9 cm [7] (1-1.3 cm[4]). Flowers can be bisexual or male with a deep purple blue staminal tube which is 0.5 cm long and 1 cm wide [7] (6-8 mm [4]). It is cut at the apex into 15-25 slender teeth [4]. Each flower of M. azedarach has ten anthers [4]. "It flowers from March to May in the northern hemisphere, although some forms flower throughout the summer and even throughout the year" [7]. [Fruits]: The mature fruit is a stalked drupe that is greenish yellow to yellowish brown, globe-shaped, and 1-1.5 cm in diameter [4] (15 mm [7], 2-4 cm x 1-2 cm [5]), smooth and becoming a little shriveled, slightly fleshy. It contains one seed [7] (up to 5 seeds [5]) in a hard endocarp which is surrounded by a thin, succulent outer flesh. The seeds are oblong, smooth, brown and approximately 3.5 x 1.6 mm [7, 4] in size. [2, 3, 4, 5, 7]

I. Wood properties: [Wood properties]: "The timber is soft, pinkish to yellow-brown resembling mahogany, with prominent growth rings which give it a fairly decorative appearance" [7]. It is a relatively strong and easily worked lightwood with a density of 0.51-0.57 g/cm³ [5] (0.51-0.66 g/cm³ [7]). However, "a study in Malawi on

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18 hardwood species of age 5-8 years, indicated that M. azedarach has an average wood density of

3

0.401 g/cm³. The wood lasts from 1 to 15 years in the ground but is rarely attacked by termites. The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus borer" [5]. It air-seasons exceptionally well, is durable and is easy to saw and peel. It is a good species for domestic fuelwood with a calorific value of 24,000-25,000 kJ/kg [5] (5,100 kcal/kg [7]). [5, 7]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 35°N to 34°S [5]. M. azedarach originates from South or Southeast Asia [2] (other sources give China or Japan as the place of origin [3]) but is widely cultivated in all tropical, subtropical or even temperate regions as decorative and shade plant. The natural habitat of M. azedarach is seasonal forest, including bamboo thickets and Tamarindus woodland. Generally it can be found in deciduous forests, riparian forests, rain forests and savannas. [3, 5, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : This species grows in an altitude of 0-1,800 m a.s.l. [5, 7]. Under natural and cultivated conditions, it is highly adaptive to a wide range of climatic conditions in the tropical, sub-tropical and warm-temperate climates mostly associated with seasonally dry conditions. "The species is drought hardy with an annual rainfall ranging from (385-) 600 to 2,000 mm (350-2,000 mm [7]). In India rainfall is mainly

during the monsoon season. Where rainfall is less than 600 mm, as in part of the Middle East, it performs well on wet soils along rivers and under irrigation. In Australia, Doran and Turnbull (1997) report the mean annual rainfall is mainly 800-1,200 mm and up to 2,400 mm for northern coastal areas. In drier inland localities annual rainfall is 385-570 mm. There is an average of 105 to 120 rainy days per year concentrated in the summer months" [5]. Generally a dry season of 4-8 months is tolerated. The normal temperature range is 23-26ºC [5] (23-27°C [7]) with an absolute minimum and maximun temperature of 15ºC to 39°C [5] (3-37°C [2]). It is shade tolerant and resistant to waterlogging and frost. "Most frost-tolerant cultivars can be planted outdoors in sheltered areas in the British Isles" [7] ( According to other sources M. azedarach suffers from varying degrees of frost [5]). "It is fire sensitive to the extent that even 10 m tall trees can be killed by ground fire" [5]. It also withstands a moderate coastal exposure and is wind tolerant. [2, 5, 7]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : The species grows on a wide range of soils, but best growth is obtained on well-drained, deep, sandy and fertile loam while shallow gravelly soils stunt the growth. M. azedarach tolerates shallow soils, saline and strongly alkaline soils, but not very acid soils. A pH of 5.5-6.5 [5] is suited best. "In Australia it occurs on mainly acid and neutral red earths, acidic red friable earths (krasnozems) and

sheer rock. In Australia, it occurs on dissected plateaus of basalt, sandstone or metamorphic, undulating low hilly country with alluvial and sandy plains, to coastal lowlands with alluvial plains. It is commonly found along stream banks, in valleys and on the lower slopes of coastal ranges" [5]. [2, 5, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: M. azedarach wood is traded as 'white cedar', resembles mahogany and is used for cabinet making and in construction due to its resistance to termites, for agricultural implements, plywood, boxes, poles and tool handles. It is a good species for fuelwood with a calorific value of 24,000-25,000 kJ/kg [5] (5,100 kcal/kg [7]). "In Australia, the species has been used for framing and boards, flooring, cabinet work, fixtures and interior joinery" [5]. [5, 7] [Non-wood]: It is important as a dye-producing plant. Leaves are lopped for fodder (in vivo dry matter digestibility of 77% [5]) and are highly nutritious but are also used as green manure. Seeds contain a greenish oil high in linoleic acid (65-82% [5]) and oleic acid, which is suitable for illumination, for soap and hair oil. The trunk yields a gum which is little utilized. "M. azedarach is well known for its medicinal uses. Its various parts have antihelmintic, antimalarial, cathartic, emetic and emmenagogic

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

shallow loamy soils. It is found on poor, marginal, sloping, and stony ground, even in crevices and

4

properties and are also used to treat skin diseases. Dried ripe fruit is used as an external parasiticide; some toxic components are found in the seed oil, the oral intake of which may cause severe reactions and even death" [7]. Fruit stones make ideal beads and are used in making necklaces and rosaries. "Anderson (1993) records that the Aborigines of the Tully River area of north Queensland used the bruised bark and leaves as a fish poison which was reported to act fairly rapidly. Gupta (1993) reports that a form of whisky is made from the fruits" [5]. [1, 5, 6, 7] [Others]: M. azedarach is a well-known ornamental which is planted along avenues due to its scented flowers and shady, spreading crown. It is also used in boundary plantings as a windbreak and living fence. The flowers are attractive to bees for pollen and honey. [2, 7]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [8]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: The natural habitat of M. azedarach is seasonal forest, including bamboo thickets and Tamarindus woodland. Generally it can be found in deciduous forests, riparian forests, rain forests and savannas. It can be pollarded as it has the ability to produce root suckers and coppice shoots and resprouts after cutting, making it suitable for pole production.

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[Establishment]: Generally one year-old seedling stock is preferred for planting in temperate climates,

5

while 6-month-old seedlings [7] (4 month old seedlings [5]) are used in the tropics. "During winter dormancy, seedlings of M. azedarach may be easily stored by placing the plants in a trench, with the root collar about 5 cm below the ground. Lifting, transporting and planting of deciduous stock should be completed before leaf flush in spring. In India the seedlings are planted in pits in July or winter when leafless. Stumps prepared from 15-month old seedlings are planted in the same way. Seedling development is stimulated by weeding and demands full sunlight for best results. In India, young plants are subject to browsing by deer. Irrigation may be required on harsh sites to ensure good survival and acceptable growth rates. Ryan and Bell (1989) reported on a trial conducted in southeast Queensland which included M. azedarach. The site was cleared of standing vegetation then ploughed to a depth of 30 cm and reploughed prior to planting. Mounds were also constructed to aid in drainage. Planting stock was initially raised in 50-70 ml tubes or net pots then repotted into 200 ml tubes where necessary. Plants were established at 3 m x 2 m spacing. Fertilizer was applied and spot weeding carried out around each plant. Results after 18 months averaged over two sites were: height 2.6 m, 100% survival and good coppice response following cutting at 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 m above ground" [7]. [Management]: Under optimal conditions, M. azedarach grows fast. However, it does not coppice well from large stumps, but excellent coppice is obtained from trees up to a girth of 0.9 m [7]. "Under plantation conditions, M. azedarach requires thinning from an early stage to prevent competition

which results in small diameter boles. M. azedarach has the ability to self prune. However, under plantation conditions, lower branches may require to be removed where access is restricted or there is the risk of fire. The tree coppices well and throws up root-suckers, especially where the roots are exposed or injured. Pollarding of M. azedarach for fuelwood and poles is usually done on 5-10 year old trees. Trees damaged by wind or lopped high on the bole produce large numbers of shoots from dormant buds on the stem" [7]. [Agroforestry]: It is widely planted as a shade tree in coffee and abaca (Musa textilis) plantations. M. azedarach is a useful species for growing with crops such as wheat. It has also been successfully planted with sugarcane. "In Paraguay where M. azedarach is grown in small woodlots for timber, the tree is inter-planted with a variety of food crops. It is planted at a spacing of 4 m x 3 m, thinned after 3 years to 400 trees/ha and after 6 years to 200 trees/ha" [7]. [2, 5, 7]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: The fruit drop is limited, and ripe fruit stay attached to the branches for several months even after the leaves have fallen. An 85% germination rate may be expected in 2 months" [7]. "In Nepal the fruit is collected from December through to March (depending on provenance). Once the flesh has been removed the nuts are dried and then sown in open beds before the end of April" [5]. [5, 7] [Propagation]: The species is propagated by direct sowing, planting of seedlings or stumps but also by

sun and seed kept under cover to a depth of 2 cm" [7]. Germination starts in about 3 weeks [7] and may take a further 3 weeks [7] to complete. After 2-3 weeks [5] the seedlings are 2-4 cm tall [5] and are transplanted into containers. Alternatively the seedlings are transplanted in nursery beds when they are 7-10 cm tall [7] and left there. The seedlings grow very fast and can be planted out in JuneJuly after 4 months [5] in the nursery when they have reached 20 cm in height [5]. [5, 7]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: M. azedarach is generally unaffected by pests. However, M. azedarach var. australasica was in the past periodically defoliated by the larvae of the white cedar moth (Leptocneria reducta) and a spider mite. "In field trials conducted near Gympie in southeast Queensland, Ryan and Bell (1989) reported that a number of woody species including M. azedarach var. australasica suffered frequent and extensive defoliation by insects" [5]. [5, 7] [Diseases]: Diseases are not very common. Bacterial and fungal diseases have been observed on leaves, twigs and fruit but no serious damage is reported. Some trees are attacked by fungi that cause brownish butt rot and brownish pocket rot. "During the 1980's in Paraguay, a witches' broom

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

natural regeneration. "In India, sowing is done in nursery beds at a spacing of 15 cm x 2.5 cm in full

6

type of growth deformity in plantations of M. azedarach developed due to infection by a mycoplasma" [5]. [7] [Others]: The roots of this tree are shallow making it susceptible to strong winds which may blow it down. It is very fire sensitive and even 10 m tall trees can be killed by ground fire. [5]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. [1, 7]

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[Introduced]:

7

Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei, China, Croatia, Cuba, Djibouti, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Jamaica, Kenya, Korea, Lesotho, Malta, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Philippines, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, Spain, Swaziland, Syria, Tanzania, Tonga, Turkey, Uganda, United Kingdom, United States of America and Zanzibar. [7]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "Because of the divided leaves, the generic name is derived from the Greek ‘melia’ (the ash); the specific name comes from the Persian ‘azzadirackt’ (noble tree)" [7]. [Poison]: "Aqueous and alcoholic extracts of leaves and seed reportedly control many insect, mite and nematode pests. However, because they contain toxic components, care is needed in their use" [7]. The fruit of M. azedarach is highly toxic to warm-blooded animals although not all trees are reported to produce toxic fruit. "Most cases of poisoning have been in pigs but there are also reports of poisoning in sheep, cattle and dogs. Poisoning has also been reported in children who have eaten the fruits" [5]. The consumption of 6-8 fruits [7] can cause nausea, spasms, and in children even death.

"The flowers may cause discomfort to asthma sufferers, and the wood dust can induce dermatitis. Annual lopping of the branches will reduce the danger as flowering is confined to second-year wood" [5]. [5, 7]

W. Further readings5 : Ahmed S, Idris S, 1997. Melia azedarach. In: Hanum IF, Maesen LJB van der, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 11 Auxiliary plants. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Leiden, Holland: Backhuys Publishers, 187-190. [5]

Anderson E, 1993. Plants of central Queensland - their identification and uses. Department of Primary industries. Brisbane: Queensland Government Printer. [7]

Brune A, 1989. Mycoplasma attack on Melia azedarach in Paraguay. Revista Forestal - Carrera de Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ingeniería Agronómica, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, 5(1):2326; 8 ref.

Cabral MMO, Garcia ES, Kelecom A, 1995. Lignanes from the Brazilian Melia azedarach, and their activity in Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera, Reduviidae). Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 90(6):759-763; 26 ref. [5]

Ginting CU, Djamin A, Hartanta, 1995. Efficacy of several concentrations of the leaves of neem tree (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) and mindi tree (Melia azedarach L.) against Setothosea asigna van Ecke. Jurnal Penelitian Kelapa Sawit, 3(2):119-125; 9 ref. [5]

Gupta BB, Adarsh Kumar, Negi DS, 1989. Rooting response of branch cuttings of Melia azedarach L. Indian Journal of Forestry, 12(3):210-214; 15 ref. [5]

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[5]

8

Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH. [7]

Huang RC, Okamura H, Iwagawa T, Tadera K, Nakatani M, 1995. Azedarachin C, a limonoid antifeedant from Melia azedarach. Phytochemistry, 38(3):593-594; 8 ref. [5]

Milimo PB, 1994. Mechanisms of drought resistance in Melia volkensii and M. azedarach. PhD thesis, Department of Forestry, Australian National University, Canberra. [5]

Milimo P, 1995. Drought resistance in Melia volkensii and M. azedarach. ACIAR Forestry Newsletter, No. 20:3. [5]

Moncur MW, Gunn BV, 1990. Seed development and germination responses of Melia azedarach var.

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australasica.. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 28:24-28; 6 ref.

9

[5]

Ottino JF, Renner JE, 1997. Spontaneous poisoning by chinaberry (Melia azedarach). Lesions in the skeletal musculative of cattle. Obiettivi e documenti veterinari, 18(7-8): 72-75. [5]

Piccolo ALG, Gregolim MI, 1980. Phenology of Melia azedarach in S. Brazil. Turrialba, 30(1):107-109; 9 ref. [5]

Ryan PA, Bell RE, 1989. Growth, coppicing and flowering of Australian tree species in southeast Queensland, Australia. ACIAR Monograph, No. 10:49-68; [refs. at end of book]. [7]

Ryan PA, Bell RE, 1991. Australian hardwoods for fuelwood and agroforestry. Review report on ACIAR Project 8809. Gympie: Queensland Forest Service (unpublished). [7]

Salam ALA, Ahmed AAI, 1997. Evaluation of using the extract of chinaberry fruits, Melia azedarach L. In the control of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis in Egypt. International conference on pests in agriculture, 6-8 January 1997, at le Corum, Montpellier, France. Vol. 3. Assoc. Nationale pour la Protection des Plantes, Paris, France. 1159-1162. [5]

Simsiri A, Namsawath P, 1993. Melia azedarach. In: Plantation forest trees. Silviculture Division, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand. [5]

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project.

320pp. [3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source) [5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). CAB International. (CD-ROM) [6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp [8] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational.

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Moringa oleifera Lam]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Moringa oleifera Lam] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Moringa oleifera Lam

³

horse-radish tree [9], ben-oil tree, cabbage tree, clarifier tree, drumstick tree, moringa tree [1]

C. Synonym

³

Moringa moringa (L.) Small [1], Moringa pterygosperma Gaetn. nom. illeg. [1], Anoma moringa (Linnaeus) Loureiro, 1970

[4], Guilandina moringa L. Standley, 1946, [4],

Hyperanthera moringa (Linnaeus) Vahl., 1970 [4], Moringa erecta Salisb. (nom illegit.)., 1796 [4], Moringa moringa (L.) Millsp. Standley, 1946 [4], Moringa octogona Stokes. nom illegit., 1812 [4], Moringa ovalifolia Dinter & Berger, 1987 [4], Moringa ovalifoliolata Dinter, 1914 [4], Moringa polygona DC. (1825) [7]

D. Other1

³

shiferaw (Ethiopia) [1] - rawag (Arabia) [1] - sajina, sohjna, sujina (Bangladesh) [1] - dan-da-lun (Myanmar) [1] -

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

benzolive tree (Caribbean) [1] - malunggay (Philippines) [1] -

1

ben ail้, neverdie, pois quenique (France) [1] - zogallagandi (W-Africa) [1] - munga ara, mungna, sainjna, sanjna, shajna, shobhanjana, sohanjna, sondna, suhujna (India) [1] - okwe oyibo (SE-Nigeria) [1] - merunggai, sajina (Malaysia) [1] sohijan (Nepal) [1] - mlonge, mronge, mrongo, mzunze (Tansania) [1] - murangai, murunga (Sri Lanka) [1] - ma-rum (Thailand) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

RmuM Source: [10]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ Morum [10] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Papaverales Family: Moringaceae Genus: Moringa Species: Moringa oleifera Lam. Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Moringa oleifera is a graceful deciduous shrub or small tree [3] reaching a height of 9-15 m [4] (3-10 m [3, 7], 15 m [1], 8 m [6], 10 m [2], 12 m [9]), with sparse foliage and an umbrella shaped, open crown. The bole is crooked, often forked from near the base and grows to a DBH of 60 cm [6] (30 cm [4], 10-30 cm [7], 1.0-1.5 m in girth [1]). It often resembles a leguminous species at a distance, especially when in flower, but it is immediately recognized when in fruit. Twigs and shoots are shortly but densely hairy, branches are brittle and drooping. The tree often develops a deep root system with a thick main root. [Bark]: The bark is smooth, dark grey, the slash is thin and yellowish. [Leaves]: The leaves are feathery, dark green above and pale green under surface, alternate,

are opposite with 4-7 pairs [4] of pinnae (4-6 pairs [7]), each bearing a 2nd lot of opposite pinnae in 27 pairs [4] spaced about 5 cm apart up the central stalk, with a slightly larger terminal leaflet. The leaflets are variable in size and shape, but often rounded-elliptical, up to 2.5 cm long [6] (1.3–2 cm x 0.6–0.3 cm [2, 4]), hairless with entire margin. [Flower]: The sweet smelling flowers are produced throughout the year, in loose inflorescences (=axillary panicles) which are up to 15 cm long [2]. Individual flower stalks are finely hairy, up to 12 mm long [6] (4-15 cm long [7]) with 5 pale green outer flower-leaves (=sepals) 12 mm long [2] and 5 unequal white or creamy-white to yellow inner flower leaves (=petals) which are a little longer than the sepals. Except 5 ones, all stamens (=male organs) have anthers, the style is slender. [Fruit]: Fruit production starts in March and April in Sri Lanka, in India between March and April and again in September and October [2]. The fruit (=triangular pod) is light brown, large and distinctive, up to 90 cm long [6] (30-90 cm [4], 30–120 cm long [2]) and 12 mm broad [6] (1.4 cm [4], 1.8 cm [2] wide), slightly constricted at intervals, gradually tapering to a point [6] (tapering at both ends [2]), 3(4-) angled [6], with 2 grooves on each face [6] (9-ribbed [2]). It splits along each angle, into 3 parts when dry to expose the rows of rounded blackish oily seeds [6]. Each pod contains about 20 seeds [4] embedded in the pith. Seeds are rounded blackish to dark brown, oily, each with 3 papery wings [4]. [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9]

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compound and tripinnate, 30–60 cm [2] long (30-90 cm [4]), the old ones soon falling off. The pinnae

2

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is very soft, corky and light. It has a density of 0.5-0.7 g/cm³ at unknown % mc [6] and yields approximately 4,600 kcal/kg [6]. [1, 6]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 30°N to 25°S [1]. Moringa oleifera origiates from India and Pakistan and was introduced into Southeast Asia where it is especially planted as decorative. "Throughout India, Moringa is commonly cultivated in hedges and backyards because of its usefulness as a fodder tree and its remarkable capacity to stand maltreatment" [6]. It is also used as a farm boundary. In nature, this species colonizes stream banks and savannah areas where the soils are well drained and the water table remains fairly high all the year round. [1, 3, 6, 7]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Moringa oleifera is rather a lowland tree species that can be found at elevations between sea-level and 1,000 m [4] (0-500 m [4], 0-1,400 m [1], 0-1,300 m [7]). I has the ability to grow both under wet and seasonal conditions. Reported annual rainfall range for growth is 400-4,300 mm [4] (300-2,500 mm [1], 480 to 4,030 mm [2], at least 500 mm [6]) with the optimum between 600-2,200 mm [4]. It is quite drought tolerant and endures up to 6 months [1] of dry season "but yields much less foliage where it is continuously under water stress" [4]. However, it can grow in locations with rainfall as low as 300 mm per year [1] if there is adequate groundwater. Reported temperature range for growth is 7-

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48°C [4] (12.6-40°C [6]), with the optimum between 18-35°C [4] (25-27ºC [1], 18.7-28.5°C [2]). It is not

3

harmed by frost, but can be killed back to ground level by a freeze. "It quickly sends out new growth from the trunk when cut, or from the ground when frozen" [6]. It is not influenced by day-length, prefers open rather than shaded situations and thrives in full sunlight. Fires are tolerated, but it is susceptible to wind damage [1]. [1, 2, 4, 6, 7]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : This species has adapted to a wide range of soil types including soils with low fertility. It grows best on fertile and well drained sandy soil, clay or clay loam but is in general suitable for light, medium and heavy soils but will not withstand salinity. It has, however, a special tolerance to shallow soil. The soils should be well drained, can be seasonally waterlogged but without prolonged waterlogging. Growth is stunted in areas with a high water table. With regard to acidity, it prefers a neutral to slightly acidic soil reaction (pH 5.5-7.5 [9], 5.5-7 [4]) but a range of pH 4.5 to 8 [4] is suitable. "It has recently been introduced with success in Pacific atolls where the pH is as high as 8.5" [6]. [1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The light and soft wood is useful only for light construction work and for industrial and domestic woodware. It is used in floats, toys and as shuttles and picking sticks for the textile industry. The wood pulp is also considered useful for newsprint and cellophane. The wood also is an acceptable firewood for cooking but makes poor charcoal. [1, 6] [Non-wood]: Food: "The leaves, a good source of protein, vitamins A, B and C and minerals such as calcium and iron, are used as a spinach equivalent. They are an excellent source of the sulphur-containing amino acids methionine and cystine, which are often in short supply. Young plants are eaten as a tender vegetable and the taproots as an alternative for horseradish. Young pods are edible and reportedly have a taste reminiscent of asparagus. The green peas and surrounding white material can be removed from larger pods and cooked in various ways. Seeds from mature pods (which can be 40-50 cm long) can be browned in a skillet, mashed and placed in boiling water, which causes an excellent cooking or lubricating oil to float to the surface. The pleasantly flavoured edible oil, resembling olive oil, is an excellent salad oil. The flowers can be eaten or used to make a tea". Fodder: "Leaves are mainly used for human food and not to any great extent for livestock, but branches are occasionally lopped for feeding camels and cattle" [6]. Lipids: "Oil extracted from the mature pods (oil of Ben) is yellowish, non-drying, good keeping qualities but eventually turns rancid. It is used as a lubricant, in cosmetics and perfumes, and to some

absorbing and retaining odours and by watchmakers as a lubricant. The oil cake can be used as a fertilizer. The crushed seeds are used by many rural communities (e.g., in Sudan, Malawi and Indonesia) as an effective and low cost means of removing turbidity from drinking water, and reducing bacterial contamination" [1]. Fibers: The bark, when beaten, produces a fiber which is used to make small ropes and mats. "A study on the production of rayon-grade pulp from M. oleifera by a prehydrolyzed sulphate process in India shows that it is suitable as a raw material for the production of high alpha cellulose pulp for use in cellophane and textiles" [1]. Gum: "When the tree is injured, the stem exudes a gum that is used in calico printing, as a condiment, and for stomach and bladder ailments. The mucilaginous gum has a bland taste and belongs to the hog series of gums" [1]. Tannins and dyestuff: The bark is used for tanning hides and wood yields a blue dye. Medicine: "Moringa seeds are effective against skin-infecting bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. They contain the potent antibiotic and fungicide terygospermin. The alkaloid spirachin (a nerve paralysant) has been found in the roots. Even when free of bark, the condiment in excess may be harmful. A decoction of the flowers is used as a cold remedy. The gum is

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extent is a substitute for sperm-whale oil" [6]. "The oil is highly valued by perfumers for its power of

4

diuretic, astringent and abortifacient and is used against asthma. Oil of Ben is used for hysteria, scurvy, prostate problems and bladder troubles. The roots and bark are used for cardiac and circulatory problems, as a tonic and for inflammation. The bark is an appetizer and digestive. The iron content of the leaves is high, and they are reportedly prescribed for anaemia in the Philippines" [1]. Honey production: "Its silviculture, involving regeneration by cuttings, coppicing and pollarding, keeps flowering on and off most parts of the year. This provides nectar to honey bees for a long period. In the Sudan, powdered seeds are deemed more effective than slices of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) for treatment of bee honey; they can be used without boiling and can also be used to clarify sugarcane juice" [1]. Domestic cleaning: "The crushed leaves are used to clean pots and pans, and the Hausa and Yoruba of Nigeria even use them to clean walls" [1]. [1, 6, 9] [Other]: Erosion control: "M. oleifera is suited to areas where strong winds and long, dry spells occur simultaneously, causing serious soil erosion" [1]. Soil improver: "The green leaves make a useful mulch. The press cake left after oil extraction from the seeds can be used as a soil conditioner or as fertilizer" [1]. Ornamental: "The species is widely planted as an ornamental" [1]. Boundary support: "Planted as a hedge in courtyards, M. oleifera provides wind protection, shade and Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

support for climbing garden plants. Widely used for live fences and hedges in Kenya, Nigeria,

5

Tanzania, India, and elsewhere. Stakes root easily and are stable, and cuttings planted in lines are used particularly around houses and gardens" [1]. Agroforestry: The tree provides semi-shade, useful in intercropping systems with many kinds of annual crops which might be damaged by intense direct sunlight. It is also a good as a support for pepper (Piper sp.) vines. Pollution control: "Suspension of the ground seed of M. oleifera, the benzolive tree, is used as a primary coagulant. It can clarify water of any degree of visible turbidity. At high turbidity, its action is almost as fast as that of alum, but at medium and low turbidity, good clarification is obtained if a small cloth bag filled with the powdered seeds is swirled round in the turbid water. To prepare the seed for use as a coagulant, remove the seed coat and wings. The white kernel is then crushed to a powder, using a mortar or placing it in a cloth and crushing it with a stone. The powder should be mixed with a small amount of water, stirred, then poured through a tea strainer before being added to the turbid water" [6]. [1, 6, 9]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No Class. [11]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Naturally, M. oleifera colonizes stream banks and savannah areas where the soils are well drained and the water table remains fairly high all the year round. It is a fast growing tree, has good coppicing and selfpruning abilities, responses well to pollarding "but does not fix nitrogen[9]". However, other sources ([1]) mention nitrogen fixing abilities. [Establishment]: Generally, stands are established by using stump plants, natural regeneration, direct sowing and planting stock [1]. "In India, the plant is propagated by planting limb cuttings 1–2 m long, from June to August, preferably. The plant starts bearing pods 6–8 months after planting but regular bearing commenced after the second year. The tree bears for several years" [2]. However, it will bear a good crop of fruit starting from the third year after planting out. When grown for its roots, the seeds are sometimes planted in rows like vegetables. [Management]: "Moringa is an extremely fast-growing tree, and within 1-3 months trees reach 2.5 m. Constant pruning of up to 1.5 m/year is suggested to obtain a thick-limbed and multibranched shrub. Trees are commonly grown for their leaves, and topping-out is useful to keep an abundant supply of leaves, pods and flowers within easy reach. M. oleifera responds well to mulch, water and fertilizer. Growth is stunted in areas with a high water table" [6]. [Harvesting]: "Fruit or other parts of plant usually harvested as desired according to some authors, but in India, fruiting may peak between March and April and again in September and October. Seed

[Yield]: In pure plantations this species may yield a biomass of about 10 MT pods per hectare [2] like other legumes. However, no commercial data are available yet. [1, 2, 6, 9]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: "Seeds should be collected from well-developed pods, but difficulties arise because seeds drop continually. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 3°C with 5-8% mc." [6]. [Propagation]: "M. oleifera is easily established by cuttings or by seeds. Seeds can be sown either directly or in containers. No seed pretreatment is required and seeds sprout readily in 1-2 weeks. Plants raised from seed produce fruit of unpredictable quality. Shield budding is successful, and budded trees begin to bear in 6 months and continue to give a good crop for 13 years. As it is essentially a vegetatively propagated crop, breeding methods like single-plant selection, mass selection and exploitation and maintenance of vigour are transgressive. Stem cuttings are usually preferred because they root easily. When grown for its roots, the seeds are sometimes planted in rows like vegetables" [6].

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gathered in March and April and oil expressed" [2].

6

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests and diseases]: "Root rot (Diplodia spp.) and papaya powdery mildew (Levellula taurica) have been observed. The hairy caterpillar Eupterote mollifera causes defoliation but can be controlled by spraying the tree with fish oil, resin soap or BHC" [1]. [Others]: Moringa oleifera is susceptible to browsing by a wide range of animals and wind damage. [1]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: India, Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen. [6] [Introduced]:

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Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia,

7

Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Kiribati, Liberia, Mali, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Northern Mariana Islands, Pakistan, Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda, Vietnam, Zanzibar. [2, 6, 8]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "The generic name comes from the Sinhalese name ‘morunga’"[4]. [Chromosomes]: 2n = 28 [2] [Chemistry]: "Per 100 g, the pod is reported to contain 86.9 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 8.5 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 30 mg Ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, 184 IU vit. A, 0.2 mg niacin, and 120 mg ascorbic acid, 310 g Cu, 1.8 g I. Leaves contain 7.5 g H2O, 6.7 g protein, 1.7 g fat, 14.3 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P, 7 mg Fe, 110 g Cu, 5.1 g I, 11,300 IU vit. A, 120 g vit. B, 0.8 mg nicotinic acid, 220 mg ascorbic acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 g. Estrogenic substances, including the anti-tumor compound, -sitosterol, and a pectinesterase are also reported. Leaf amino acids include 6.0 g arginine/16 g N, 2.1 histidine, 4.3 lysine, 1.9 tryptophane, 6.4 phenylalanine, 2.0 methionine, 4.9 threonine, 9.3 lucine, 6.3 isoleucine, and 7.1 valine. Pod amino acids enclue 3.6 g arginine/16 g N, 1.1 g histidine, 1.5 g lysine, 0.8 g tryptophane, 4.3 g phenylalanine, 1.4 g methionine, 3.9 g threonine, 6.5 g leucine, 4.4 g isoleucine, and 5.4 valine.

Seed kernel (70–74% of seed) contains 4.08 H2O, 38.4 g crude protein, 34.7% fatty oil, 16.4 g N free extract, 3.5 g fiber, and 3.2 g ash. The seed oil contains 9.3% palmitic, 7.4% stearic, 8.6% behenic, and 65.7% oleic acids among the fatty acids. Myristic and lignoceric acids have also been reported. The cake left after oil extraction contains 58.9% crude protein, 0.4% Cao, 1.1% P2O5 and 0.8% K2O. Pterygospermin, a bactericidal and fungicidal compound, isolated from Moringa has an LD50 subcutaneously injected in mice and rats of 350 to 400 mg/kg body weight. Root-bark yields two alkaloids: moringine and moringinine. Moringinine acts as cardiac stimulant, produces rise of bloodpressure, acts on sympathetic nerve-endings as well as smooth muscles all over the body, and depresses the sympathetic motor fibers of vessels in large doses only" [1].

W. Further readings5 : Anon. 1986. The useful plants of India. Publications & Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India. [1]

Beentje HJ. 1994. Kenya trees, shrubs and lianas. National Museums of Kenya. [1]

Bein E. 1996. Useful trees and shrubs in Eritrea. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Nairobi,

[1]

Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). [1]

Booth FEM, Wickens GE. 1988. Non-timber uses of selected arid zone trees and shrubs in Africa. FAO Conservation Guide. No. 19. Rome. [1]

Dale IR, Greenway PJ. 1961. Kenya trees and shrubs. Buchanan’s Kenya Estates Ltd. [1]

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Kenya.

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Dhalla Rosa KR. 1993. Moringa oleifera: A perfect tree for home gardens. Agroforestry species highlights. The Agroforestry Information Service. Hawaii, USA. [1]

ECHO. 1996. Special purpose Trees. ECHO, USA. [1]

Hocking D. 1993. Trees for Drylands. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. [1]

Hong TD, Linington S, Ellis RH. 1996. Seed storage behaviour: a compendium. Handbooks for Genebanks: No. 4. IPGRI. [1]

ICRAF. 1992. A selection of useful trees and shrubs for Kenya: Notes on their identification, propagation and management for use by farming and pastoral communities. ICRAF.

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[1]

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Katende AB et al. 1995. Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda. Identification, Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). [1]

Kayastha BP. 1985. Silvics of the trees of Nepal. Community Forest Development Project, Kathmandu. [1]

Keay RW. 1989. Trees of Nigeria. Claredon Press Oxford. [1]

Lanzara P and Pizetti M. 1978. Simon & Schuster’s guide to trees. Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York. [1]

Mahajan S, Sharma YK. 1984. Production of rayon grade pulp from Moringa oleifera. Indian Forester. 110(3): 303-306. [1]

Maundu P. M. Ngugi G.W. Kabuye C.H.S. (1999) Traditional Food Plants of Kenya [8]

Mbuya LP et al. 1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania: Identification, Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). [1]

Nautiyal BP, Venkataraman KG. 1987. Moringa (Drumstick) - An ideal tree for social forestry; growing conditions and uses - part I: Myoforest. 23(1):53-58. [1]

considerable medicinal value: Proceeding of a Symposium 5-35 on the 14th International Botanical Congress, Berlin, 24 July - 1 August. [1]

Verma, S.C., Banerji, R., Misra, G., Nigam, S.K. 1976. Nutritional value of moringa. Current Sci. 45(21):769–770. [8]

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[2] Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/SearchEngine.html (Internet source)

[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

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Peter KV. 1987. Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) - A multipurpose perennial Indian vegetable tree of

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[4] ECOPORT: http://www.ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=517656 [Internet source)

[5] Various Authors, 1973: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-nam (Fascicule 18th), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

[6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source)

[7] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[8] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations.

[9] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International. 320pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[10] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

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[11] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Nephelium lappaceum L]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Nephelium lappaceum L] ³

Nephelium lappaceum L

B. English name (s)

³

rambutan [1], ramboostan [11]

C. Synonym

³

Nephelium glabrum Cambess. (1829) (also used for

A. Latin name

(s)

Nephelium maingayi), Nephelium chryseum Blume (1847), Nephelium sufferrugineum Radlk. (1879) [1], Euphoria nephelium, Dimocarpus crinata [3], Nephelium mutabile Blume var. pallens Hiern in Hook.f., Xerospermum topengii Merr. [10], Nephelium obovatum (Ridely) [11]

D. Other1

³

litchi chevelu, ramboutan (France) [1, 5] - usan, rambutan (Philippines) [1, 11], ngoh, phruan, ngoh paa, phruan ngoh (Thailand) [1, 11] - ch[oo]m ch[oo]m, v[ar]i thi[eef]u., saaw maaw, vai thi[ee][uf], vai thieu (Vietnam) [1, 11] - chorogol, gente, kakapas, rambutan (Indonesia) [11] - buah abong, rambutan, rangalau (Malaysia) [11] - hooun mo daon shau

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tsz (China) [11] - mshokishoki (East-Africa) [11]

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

savm:av / esman; / savm:avRsuk Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ saaw maaw, ser mon, saavmaav srok [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Sapindaceae Source :[ 7]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Medium sized evergreen tree with a height of 10-12 m [11] (8-15 m [5], 12-25 m [9], 4-7 m to 15-25 m [10], -25 m [3]). Large tree in natural vegetation. Straight bole, diameter up to 40-60 cm with a densely branched and spreading crown of erect branches [9] (open crown of large branches [11]). Branches bear numerous lenticels, the branchlets have a dense reddish hair, become glabrescent and finely winkled. [Bark]: The bark is slightly rugose, greyish, dark greyish-brown or red. [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate (only first pair opposite), pinnately compound with 2 pairs [3] (1-4 pairs [10]) of elliptic leaflets but without an end-leaflet. Leaflets egg-shaped to elliptical, 5-28 cm x 210.5 cm [1] (7-30 cm long [10], -25 cm long [3]), usually horizontal, above hairy or sometimes slightly hairy on the midrib, beneath variably hairy, domatia common to absent, apex truncate to acuminate, nerves slightly to strongly curving, coarse vein network of 6-15 pairs of principal veins prominent on the lower surface. Leaves slightly leathery and bright yellowish-green to dark-green color and dull on the upper surface, yellowish or bluish-green beneath. [Flowers]: Inflorescence multi-branched, pseudo-terminal to usually terminal. Flowers whitish, yellowish or greenish, either male (dioecious) or hermaphrodite (monoecious) and small in long stemmed flowerstalks. Inner flower-leaves 4-5(-7) nearly 0.7-2.1 mm long. Outer flower-leaves usually absent, sometimes up to 4 reduced ones, not exceeding 1.6 mm. Disk complete, hairy or hairless. "Trees that are hermaphrodite with both functionally female and functionally male flowers are the most common cultivars grown" [10]. Some trees or branches may flower out of season. The flowering

[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) consists of 1 nutlet, round to oval shape up to 6 cm [3] (7 x 5 cm [11], 3.5-8 cm long [10]) with a weight of 20-95 g [11]. Color pinkish-red, bright-or deep-red, orange-red, maroon or dark-purple, yellowish-red, or all yellow or orange-yellow with 0.5-2 cm long soft curling spines, the tips deciduous in some types. Wall thin and leathery, up to 2.5 mm thick. Fruitflesh 0.4-0.8 cm thick, creamy white or rose-tinted, translucent, juicy, acid to subacid, with a distinct flavour and sweet taste. The flattened seed is oval shaped, 2.5-3.4 x 1-1.5 cm. There may be 1 or 2 small undeveloped fruits nestled close to the stem of a mature fruit. [1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 11]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Wood reddish colored, moderately hard to very hard, strong and tough. It is durable under cover and generally resistant to insect attacks, but susceptible to fungal attacks. The average fibre length of wood is 1.07 mm. It is liable to splitting during seasoning. Usually rambutan wood is too small to be valued as timber. [11]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Occurs between 17°N and 17°S in tropical lowlands and is cultivated in Asia (Sri Lanka to New Guinea) and in small numbers in the humid tropics of America, Africa and Australia. The trees grow in

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intensity seems to be correlated with the duration of water stress.

2

the lower or middle storey in different types of primary and secondary forest, ranging from dry land to swamp. [1, 10, 11]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Grows in the hot humid tropics at an altitude of 0-600 m a.s.l. [1, 9] (0-300 [6], 0-600 up to 2,000 [10], 0-600 up to 1,950 [11] m a.s.l. ). Demands a well distributed annual rainfall with about 165 rainy days per year. Annual optimal rainfall 2,500 mm [1] (2,500-3,000 mm [6, 9], 1,800-2,500 mm [10]) and a total range of 1,400-4,000 mm [10]. Temperature range for growth is 10-42°C with an optimum between 21-35°C. "In the ideal environment of Oriental Mindora Philippines, the average yearly temperature is 27.3ºC" [10]. Mature trees may survive a short period of as low temperatures as 4°C but with severe defoliation. The relative humidity should be around 80% and the dry season should not last more than 3 months. Intolerant to drought, dry winds and frost, especially during the juvenile stage. [1, 6, 9, 10, 11]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers well-drained, deep clay loam or fertile sandy loam rich in organic matter or in deep peat but can be grown in a wide range of soil types, even ones with poor drainage, but not water-logged. It Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

grows well especially on red lateritic soils. A pH range of 4.5-6.5 [1, 11] (4.5-7.5 [10]) is indicated with

3

an optimum between 5 and 6.5. At a higher pH iron and zinc deficiencies are common (chlorosis, leaf yellowing). [1, 9, 10, 11]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Usually rambutan wood is too small to be highly valued as timber [11]. However it can also be used as a timber tree. The wood is suitable for general construction purposes. [1, 11] [Non-wood]: Trees are cultivated for their very popular fruit. The usually juicy fruitflesh around the seed is eaten fresh, the more sour ones are eaten stewed. It can be canned or used in jam, but loses much of its flavour. In traditional Cambodian medicine the green fruits having astringent, stomachic and anthelmintic properties are used against different diseases, most commonly as an antipyretic and anti-diarrhoeal. The bark is used against diseases of the tongue. The roots are used in decoctions for treating fever. Recent studies have investigated potential anti-viral properties, esp. Herpes Simplex Virus. The fruit wall contains the toxic saponin, however, in Java it is dried and used as a medicine. Young shoots are used to produce a green color on silk that is first dyed yellow with turmeric. "The fruit walls are used, together with tannin-rich parts of other plants, to dye silk black after a preliminary

red staining [11]". Leaves are used together with mud as an impermanent black dye. The seed kernel can be used for the production of rambutan tallow, a solid fat similar to cacao butter, which is edible and was formerly used for soaps and candles. The seed itself is edible (after roasting) but is bitter and narcotic. [1, 5, 11] [Others]: Rambutan is a popular ornamental tree for backyards and public streets. [1]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [8]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Rambutan occurs naturally in the lower- or middle storey in different types of primary- and secondary forest ranging from dryland to swamp but is commercially grown in plantations, backyards and homegardens. [Establishment]: Planting densities vary between 5 x 7 m to 10 x 10 m [1] (10 x 12 m [9], 10 x 13 m [11]). Spacing depends on the vigour of the stock-scion combination and on the growing conditions (soil depth, irrigation). [Management]: Sometimes there may be pure rambutan stands or mixed plantations with durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) and some langsat- (Lansium domesticum Correa) or mangosteen trees(Garcinia mangostana L.). Irrigation is necessary when rainfall is insufficient, however, it

organic mulching under the trees is recommended. "For growing trees, a fertilizer rate of 200 g nitrogen, 25 g of phosphate and 100 g potassium per tree per year of age is recommended. For the first 4 years, the fertilizers should be applied in 4 equal dressings, every 3 months. For fruiting trees, 200 g N, 25 g P and 130 g K per tree per year of age is recommended. Maximum fertilizer rate is reached at 12 years, and should remain constant thereafter. For fruiting trees, a quarter of the yearly fertilizer should be applied 4 weeks after fruit set; half the amount should be applied immediately after harvest, and the remaining quarter at 9 weeks after harvesting. Additionally, 0.4 kg of dolomite/tree/year of age, maximum at 10 years and constant after, is applied during slow growing months. At any stage, glyphosate herbicide should not be used near the drip line of rambutan, it could cause a severe yellowing and abscission of the lower leaves" [11]. Tree growth is rhythmic, varying from fast to slow periods in the seedling phase to a complete standstill after a flush in the sapling phase. Early pruning and training is recommended. After harvesting, fruited twigs are pruned back to stimulate new growth of up to 4 new side shoots, of which 22% of the shoots will bear fruit in the following season. Dead branches and water suckers should be removed regularly. "Pruning out all shoots which grow in the interior of the tree is common in Thailand and Indonesia. The canopy is not opened up; on the contrary, after harvest, the flower remains are cut out to stimulate the growth of side shoots at the periphery of the canopy. Consequently, the trees have long bare limbs which extend further and further outwards. This weakens the shoot/root feedback controls and hastens tree

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complicates clean weeding. To save water, to reduce weeding and to improve tree growth, generous

4

ageing, as evidenced by the progressive decline of the lower limbs. The opposite approach, fairly drastic pruning in the foliated fringe is practised in places near Kuala Lumpur. Branches which have fruited are cut out after harvest which keeps the canopy open and brings the terminals which are predisposed to flower into prominence. This pruning system keeps the trees small and

their

branching pattern simple, provided that the remaining twigs indeed produce enough fruit to moderate the tree's reaction to such rigorous pruning. Under these conditions tree spacings of 6 m x 4 m or 5 m x 3 m may be feasible" [1]. The economic life of a tree lasts about 15-20 sometimes up to 30 years. [Yield]: Depending on the location, rambutan can produce up to 2 crops a year. The fruit has to be harvested when ripe. The production of a single tree can attain 250-300 kg [9] (170 kg [1]). It is not unusual for single trees to produce 5-10 kg two years after planting. However, yields can vary tremendously depending on the site: 2-5.6 t/ha/year (Malaysia), 6.3 t/ha (Thailand: average site conditions), 20 t/ha (Thailand: excellent site conditions). Entire twigs are twisted or cut off the tree using a bamboo pole which is slit at the top or which contains a small knife. Depending on the cultivar the trees may have to be picked twice a week for 2-8 weeks. In Indonesia and Malaysia (also Cambodia) the fruit is sold as bunched panicles, while individual fruits are sold in Thailand and the Philippines. [Agroforestry]: "The planting of cash crops or green manure crops among young trees can be beneficial, but crops should not be planted too near to the trees. Legumes with low growth habits such as Canavalia, Crotalaria and Vigna can also be intercropped with rambutan" [11]. [1, 9, 11]

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Q. Propagation :

5

The seeds are short-lived and therefore sown directly after they have been extracted and washed. Germination takes 7-10 (-20) days. Seedlings grow much faster if cared for properly. Many trees are still grown from seed, but commercial production comes by and large from clonal trees by budding on seedlings, or air layering. Nurseries use the modified Forkert budding, taking seeds from seedling trees to produce the rootstocks. Seeds are pre-germinated and the seedlings are raised in intensivecare beds under shade for about two months before being transplanted to the nursery rows. The wellgrown rootstocks are bud grafted at 8-12 months. Dormant buds with well-healed petiole scars from one to two-year-old branches, average 80% success. Rootstocks are budded within a year; to stimulate active growth, the nursery rows and the mother trees receive water and nitrogen before budding. They should be cut back 25 cm above the bud union and all foliage removed at 2 weeks [6] (10-14 days [1]) after budding. This cutting back and defoliation promotes bud break of the new graft 14-17 days later. Budding before flowering is avoided as it results in many flowering budlings. One hundred germinating seeds yield about 50 good rootstocks; after budding, these produce about 25 saleable plants early in the next rainy season. Home gardeners often propagate young watershoots by air layering. They root well, but losses after separation and during field establishment are very common. Inarching of rooted stocks into twigs of the mother tree (approach grafting) is a good but labor-intensive propagation method. [1, 6, 11]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Numerous caterpillars and beetles feed on young shoots and inflorescences." [1] "Botryodiplodia theobromae, Gliocephalotrichum bulbilium and Colletotrichum spp. cause the major post-harvest diseases. A survey conducted in Bangkok markets identified about 30% of the postharvest diseases caused by Colletotrichum spp., 10% by Gliocephalotrichum bulbilium, and 5% by Botryodiplodia theobromae. Post-harvest storage of fruit in the dark, with low temperatures, may discourage fruit rot. Rambutan is host to 118 different species of insects, but only 17 were identified as attacking rambutan fruits. The following pests are listed in the order of importance: Acrocercops cramerella (cacao pod borer), Phenacaspis spp., Planacoccus citri., Dichocrocis punctiferalis, Dacus dorsalis, Carpophilus dimidatus and Carpophilus marginelius. Rambutan infested with Acrocercops cramerella, cacao pod moth, showed no external symptoms, with up to 40% infestation observed in some cultivars and damage generally between 10-15%" [11]. "Mealy bugs may shelter in fruit panicles; they are cultured by ants, and sooty mould grows on the secreted honey dew. Fruit flies attack only overripe fruit. The fruit is eaten by bats, rodents and monkeys, and a crop may have to be guarded day and night against these visitors" [1]. [Diseases]: "No disease control is practised, except sulphur treatments in Thailand against powdery mildew (Oidium nephelii) during bloom to fruit set. Loss of limbs is caused by stem dieback (Thyronectria pseudotrichia). Stem canker (Dolabra nepheliae) disfigures the surface of branches and twigs; the incidence is reduced if the canopy does not impede air circulation" [1]. [Others]: Low relative humidity and exposure to dry wind leads to browning of the leaf margins; sheltered locations or wind screens are recommended. Water stress after flowering results in low fruit

[1, 10, 11]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Often cultivated as a fruit plant in farms in Sinhanoukville- and Kampot Province. [5]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia) [1, 3] [Introduced]: Vietnam),

Asia (Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,

Africa (Cameroon, Liberia, Seychelles, Tanzania, Zanzibar), Latin-America (Colombia, Ecuador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Trinidad, Cuba, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Brazil),

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set and reduced sarcotesta development ('flat fruit'), setting back both yield and fruit quality.

6

N-America: USA, Oceania: Australia, Papua New Guinea

[1, 3, 7, 10, 11]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "The specific name stems from the Latin word ‘lappaceus’ meaning ‘bur-like’ and refers to the fruit appendages. The word rambutan is derived from the Malay word ‘hair,’ which describes the numerous, characterizing, long, soft, red or red and green coloured spine-like protuberances (spinterns) on the surface of the fruit" [11]. [Cultivars]: "Rambutans are traded under various names, which may refer to fruit characteristics, to the centre of production, or to a specific cultivar. Since established trade names have also been given to some cultivars, the names are rather confusing. In Malaysia this problem has been tackled by giving 'R' numbers to old and new clones in a selection programme. The selections R3 ('Peng Thing Cheng'), R134, R156 ('Muar Gading'), R160 ('Khaw Tow Bak'), R161 ('Lee Long'), R162 ('Oh Heok') and R170 ('Deli Cheng') are recommended throughout the country; others are more location-specific. Important cultivars in Thailand are 'Chompoo', 'Rongrien', 'Bang Yi Khan', 'See Tong' and 'Nam Tan Kruad'. In Java cultivars 'Lebakbulus', 'Binjai', 'Sitankue', 'Rapiah' and 'Simacan' have dominated nurseries since the 1930s. In the Philippines introductions from Indonesia ('Simacan', 'Sinyonya', 'Maharlika') are grown. Important features of the cultivars are thickness, colour, juice content and aroma of the flesh (sarcotesta); whether or not it adheres to the seed ('clingstone' versus 'freestone' cultivars); and whether the papery part of the seed coat comes off with the flesh" [1].

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[Production and International Trade]: "Statistics for 1987/1988 give an area of 71,150 ha rambutan in

7

Thailand, the crop of 448,500 t being smaller than the tangerine crop and about as large as that of mango, durian and jackfruit. In Peninsular Malaysia rambutan is also one of the principal fruit trees with 19,500 ha and a crop of 57,000 t in 1987/1988. In both countries production figures do not fluctuate much, whereas in Indonesia light and heavy crops appear to alternate, e.g. 93,300 t in 1985/1986 compared with 199,200 t in 1986/1987. In the Philippines rambutan growing has been much encouraged by introduction of cultivars from Indonesia, mainly in the 20th Century, with the result that rambutan now ranks among the top 10 tree fruits. In Thailand and Malaysia canning is important. Exports of rambutan from South-East Asia are increasing steadily and exceeded 2,000 t of fresh fruit for Malaysia as well as Thailand in 1987. Moreover, Thailand exported about 3,500 t canned fruit in that year, mainly to Singapore, Hong Kong and the European Community" [1]. [Fruit Properties]: "Thai sources give the following composition of the fruit per 100 g edible portion: water 82.9 g, protein 0.9 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrates 14.5 g, fibre 1.1 g, vitamin A 4 IU, vitamin C 31 mg. The energy value is 264 kJ/100 g. The seed kernel yields 30-43% of solid fat, remarkable for its high content of arachidic acid (34.7%) and oleic acid (42.5%); after heating, the fat turns into a yellow, pleasant smelling oil. The wood is hard, heavy, red to reddish-white or somewhat brown, and liable to split during drying" [1].

[Nutrient Uptake]: "The crop does not remove much nutrients: according to Malaysian findings 15 kg N, 2 kg P, 11.7 kg K, 5.9 kg Ca and 2.7 kg Mg per ha for a crop of 7,300 kg/ha. In Thai orchards spot treatments with naphtyl acetic acid (NAA) to increase the proportion of male flowers on 'Chompoo' and 'Rongrien' trees are standard practice. In recent years the results of NAA application have been less reliable and keen growers now interplant their orchards with male trees on tall trunks to improve pollination" [1]. [Germplasm Management]: "Seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant, whole seed mc at shedding is 36%, viability is reduced by 12% on desiccation from 36% to 25% mc, and no seeds remain viable when the mean mc is reduced to 13%. However excised embryos tolerate desiccation to 14-15% mc, 67% survive desiccation to 8-9% mc; and 40% survive overnight in liquid nitrogen when excised embryos are treated with 10% DMSO plus 3% sucrose followed by partial desiccation (1-2 hours)" [11]. [Fruit Transportation]: "The fruit travels well if packed properly, but shelf life is only a few days, mainly because the fruit loses weight rapidly and appendages and skin turn black. Keeping the fruits moist and shaded prolongs this period slightly. Shrink-wrapped fruit from Thailand arrive in Europe in excellent condition. Research work suggests that cold storage at 5-10°C and fungicidal treatment may extend the shelf life to several weeks" [1].

Almeyda, N., Malo, S.E. & Martin, F.W., 1979. Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise, part 6. The Rambutan. Science and Education Administration, US Department of Agriculture, New Orleans. 14 pp.

Buisson, D., 1986. Analyse architecturale de quelques espèces d'arbres fruitiers tropicaux. Fruits 41: 477-498.

International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1986. Genetic resources of tropical and sub-tropical fruits and nuts (excluding Musa). IBPGR, Rome. pp. 123-125.

Fachrurozi, Z., 1984. Periode vegetatif dan reproduktif pada rambutan [Vegetative and reproductive phases in the rambutan]. Berita Biologi 2(9-10): 226-227.

Lam, P.F. & Kosiyachinda, S., 1987 (Editors): Rambutan, fruit development, postharvest physiology and marketing in ASEAN. ASEAN-COFAF, Jakarta. 82 pp.

Leenhouts, P.W., 1986. A taxonomic revision of Nephelium (Sapindaceae). Blumea 31: 373-436.

Ng, S.K. & Thamboo, S., 1967. Nutrient removal studies on Malayan fruits: durian and rambutan. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 56: 164-182.

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W. Further readings5 :

8

Nigel JHS, Williams JT, Donald LP, Jennifer PT. 1992. Tropical forests and their crops. Cornell University Press.

Perry LM. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia : attributed properties and uses. MIT Press. South East Asia.

Shaari, A.R., 1983. Aspects of research and production of rambutan in Malaysia. Paper (mimeo). International Workshop for promoting research on tropical fruits, Jakarta, May/June 1983. 16 pp.

Valmayor, R.V., Mendoza Jr., D.B., Aycardo, H.B. & Palencia, C.O., 1970. Growth and flowering habits, floral biology and yield of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum Linn.). The Philippine Agriculturists 54: 359-374.

Verheij EWM, Coronel RE (eds.). 1991. Plant Resources of South East Asia No 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.

Watson, B.J., 1988. Rambutan, cultivars in North Queensland. Queensland Agricultual Journal 114: 37-42. [1, 11]

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X. References:

9

[1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[2] PROSEA, 2002: Plant Resources of South East Asia 14 - Vegetable oils and fats.

[3] Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees. A Worldwide Encyclopedic Guide.

[4] Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of South East Asia.

[5] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[6] Rehm, S.; Espig, G., 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics.

[7] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[8] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

[9] FAO, 1988: Fruit-bearing Forest Trees. FAO Forestry Paper.

[10] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=1528&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full (Internet source).

[11] World Agroforestry Center: Agroforestry Database http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=1202 (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[12] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

10

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz. (also P. dasyrrhachis) scientific name: Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis (Pierre) Gagnep]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz. (also P. dasyrrhachis) scientific name: Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis (Pierre) Gagnep] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz. (also P.

dasyrrhachis)

[5],

scientific

name:

Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis (Pierre) Gagnep[14]. B. English name (s)

³

C. Synonym

³

Caesalpinia dasyrhachis Miq., Peltophorum grande Prain., Peltophorum tonkinense (Pierre) Gagnep. [26]

D. Other1

³

Trasek (Cambodia); sa kham, sa phang, sa fang (Laos); peltophorum (Philippines; jemerelang (Malaysia); hoàng linh, hoàng lim Bac Bo, lim xet, lim vàng, xet vay (Vietnam) [8,14, 26]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

Rtesk

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Source: [-]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ trâsé:k [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Caesalpinioideae Gunus: Peltophorum (Vogel) Benth.[8] Species: Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz [8]

Source :[ 8 ; 11; 14]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A large tree, 25-30 m high with 70-90 cm diameter. Young branchlets reddish-brown, pubescent, later glabrous [2]. Deciduous tree, 10-30 m tall [4]. Large deciduous tree up to 30 m high, 70-90 cm diameter, open crown [5,8]. A large size timber species up to 25-30 m high, diameter up to 50-60 cm [14]. [Bark]: Bark greyish brown, lenticels present on twigs, inner bark dark brown to reddish -brown. [5,8]. Bark with many rings around the stem, peeling when mature, pale brown in colour. Bole straight with small buttress [14]. [Leaves]: Bipinnately compound, alternate, 15-40 cm long, reddish-brown, pubescent. Leaflets 6-16 pairs, oblong elliptic, 15-25 mm long and 5-8 mm wide, tip rounded, base cuneate and slightly oblique, glabrous; stipules large [2]. Leaf 18-25 cm, bipinnate with 4-9 pairs of pinnae each with 8-16 pairs of leaflets, 1.0-2.5x 0.5-1.0 cm , asymmetrically oblong, with slightly notched tip. Young leaves with dense red-brown hairs, mature leaves glossy dark green above and slightly brown-hairy below, with remarkable anther-like stipules, ± 2 cm [5]. Leaves bipinnate, 15-32 cm long, pinnae 4-9 pairs, young leaves with dense reddish-brown hairs. Leaflets 6-16 pairs per pinna, irregular elliptic, 10-25 by 4-10 mm, base acute, obtuse or rounded, slightly oblique, apex rounded or slightly emarginated, above glossy dark green when mature, slightly brown hairy beneath [8]. Leaves bipinnately compound, 7-16 pairs of secondary particles, each with 5-12 pairs of leaflets, ovoid-elliptic, 1 cm long, 4-9 mm wide. Young leaves

[Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, racemose, 15-30 cm long, rufous-pilose. Bract linear, 7-9 mm long, persistent. Peduncle 20-40 mm long, ruddy-pubescent. Sepals broad elliptic, ruddy pubescent outside, glabrous inside. Petals yellow obovoid. Anthers 4-5 mm long, filaments 10-15 mm long, ovary villose, ovules 4-8. [2] Flower 1.5-2.5 cm, bright yellow, in drooping, unbranched clusters at leaf axils, 15-35 cm; individual stalks 1.5-4.0 cm long, 5 overlapping sepals densely brown hairy outside, 5 flimsily rounded petals, 10 fertile stamens, as long as petals, single slender style with knob-like stigma, ovary hairy [5]. Inflorescences axillary racemes, 15-30 cm long, with pubescent axis. Bracts persistent, linear, 7-12 cm long. Pedicels 20-40 mm long. Buds ovoid. Sepals broad-elliptic 10-15 by 5-6 mm, brownish or ruddy pubescent outside, glabrous inside. Petals yellow, obovate, 15-25 by 10-12 mm, hairy towards the base of the upper side. Stamens 10, fertile, with filaments ± as long as petals, 10-15 mm long; anthers 4-5 mm long. Ovary sessile, velutinous, with 4-8 ovules, style slender, stigma knob-like [8]. Inflorescense apical racemose. Flowers with bracts, caducous, petals yellow. Pedicel 2-3 times longer than the bud. [Fruit]: A pod, two ends tapered, 10-15 cm long, and 2.0-3.5 cm wide, red-brown, glabrous, margin thinly winged, seeds 4-8, transversally arranged [2]. Fruit 10-15 x 2.0-3.5 cm, dull brown, tapering at both ends with 2 long, narrow wings, 0.4-0.5 cm wide, hanging in bunches behind the leaves, not

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

ferruginous, stipule caducous [14].

2

splitting; 4-8 flat seeds, horizontally arranged across the pods [5]. Pods reddish brown, flattened, both ends tapered, 10-15 by 2.0-3.5 cm, margin thinly winged, 4-5 mm broad. Seeds 4-8, more or less transversally arranged in the pod, flat, 10-12 by 5 mm [8]. Fruit flat, 9-13 cm long, 2.3 cm wide, brown in colour. Seed arranged at 45º angle in the fruit. Seed with hard coat [14]. Pod elliptical, sharppointed, 10-15 cm x 2-4 cm, flat, with a wing-like extension 4-5 mm broad on each suture, dull-brown when ripe, later blackish, 4-8-seeded, indehiscent, often hanging in bunches below the leaves. Seed flattened oblongoid, 10-12 mm x 5 mm, transversely positioned. Seedling with epigeal germination; hypocotyl 4-6 cm long; cotyledons stalked, 3-nerved, glabrous. P. dasyrhachis (often erroneously spelled 'dasyrrhachis') is related to P. pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne, an important source of 'soga' dye. P. dasyrhachis can be distinguished by its crown that is uneven and not umbrella-shaped, its branched stipules, and its thick, reddish tomentum. The two species have occasionally been confounded in the literature. In northern Vietnam, a form of P. dasyrhachis occurs with unbranched stipules and early falling bracts, named var. tonkinense (Pierre) K. & S.S. Larsen [26]. Flowering February to April, when young leaves develop, fruiting July to October [2,8].

I. Wood properties: Sapwood and heartwood distinctive: Sapwood white-grey, heartwood brownish, wood heavy, specific gravity 700kg/m³, rather durable, grain rough; Resistant to termites and wood-degrading insects [2]. Heartwood pink, distinct from sapwood; grain fine, wood rated durable, specific gravity 700kg/m³. Annual rings conspicuous, usually 4-8 mm wide, double and single vessels scattered, short, medium diameter, number of vessels per mm² few; vessels usually contain a brown or white substance. Rays

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small and narrow, usually with alternatingly-layered structure. Paratracheal parenchyma: fusiform,

3

aliform, aliform-confluent. Average thickness of wood fibre 1.05 mm, fibre wall: medium thickness. Wood medium-hard, the specific gravity of dry wood is 740kg/m³. Volume shrinkage coefficient is 0.47%, pressure strength along the grain 580kg/cm², static bending strength 1.030kg/cm², splitting resistance 12kg/cm², impact strength 880kg/cm² (?) [14]. The yellowish-red heartwood is heavy, but brittle and is attacked by termites and boring insects [26].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Occurs in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, through Malaysa and to Indonesia (islands of Sumatera and Java) [4]. In Vietnam in evergreen broadleaved forest, but also in secondary deciduous forest below 600-800 m asl. Generally it occurs in deciduous and evergreen forests, bordering agricultural fields, up to 800 m asl. P. dasyrhachis is found in secondary, deciduous or evergreen forest. Due to its relatively deep rooting system, it is drought tolerant. Its hairiness and fairly thick bark have been associated with its tolerance of fire. [26].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : P. dasyrhachisIn tropical deciduous and evergreen forests up to 600-800 m. A light-demanding species when mature and shade tolerant when young. In Vietnam P. dasyrhachis grows as a pioneer on land abondoned after shifting cultivation or forests in a restoration phase; often associated with

Engelhardtia chrysolepis, Ormosia balansae, and Alangium kurzii. A mesophytic tree encompassing a range from slightly humidity-demanding to somewhat drought-tolerant. P. dasyrhachis is considered by M. Schmid (1974) to be an indicator of calcareous soils.[2] Biophysical indicators are elevation up to 800 ma.s.l., (up to 1000m in south Vietnam) [14] and mean annual precipitation of 1500-2500 mm/ m² [14].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : undetermined

M. soil and site conditions : Thrives on ferallitic soils developed from schist-sandstone and granite [2] more generally on ultisols [26]..

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Used in house construction and furniture manufacturing [2]. Timber used for poles, household implements, truckbeds, carts, railway sleepers, boat and ship building [8]. Wood of P. dasyrhachis is suitable for furniture production and structures requiring medium strength, e.g. in construction, communications and transport [14]. It makes good fuelwood. [Non-Wood]: P. dasyrhachis is planted as ornamental tree because of its shape and beautiful yellow flowers. Bark is used for medicinal purposes.[4, 8] An infusion against cough can be prepared from the bark

dense shade to control weeds during fallow periods, and can be managed in hedges without too much shading of inter-row crops. Because its growth rate is slower than that of Leucaena Leucocephala (Lamk) de Wit and Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp., it requires less frequent pruning. Upon pruning, trees resprout abundantly and form a dense hedge [26]. [Other]: The slow rate of decomposition of the leaves reduce erosion. Its use in the reclamation of Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel grasslands is being tested; in Indonesia and Malaysia, young trees planted in tall Imperata grassland and left unattended after planting remained alive, but grew slowly. In the first half of the 20th century, P. dasyrhachis was used as a shade tree mainly in coffee plantations in Java. In central Thailand it is maintained after bush fallow as a shade tree for fruit trees and for its role in soil improvement. The slow rate of decomposition of the leaves is also contributes to the suppresion of weeds. Seeds of Imperata cylindrica hardly germinate in soil covered by the leaves. However, because of the fairly high content of polyphenolic substances, leaf litter decomposition is slow, allowing but sometimes impeding a humus layer to build up in the soil [26].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

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[26]. It has been tested as a tree in alley-cropping systems. When unpruned, it provides a rather

4

P. Silviculture and management : P. dasyrhachis was under investigation of its suitability for larger scale planting between 1984 and 2003 in Vietnam. The experimental design was not optimum concerning selection of sites (inadequate soils) and combination with faster growing Acacias, which outshaded P. dasyrhachis 4 years after planting. It must be planted in forest soil, immediately after slash and burn stopped. Spacing should be 3mx3m, if trees stand too freely they tend to low branch formation.When planted on bare soil or hill sides growth is poorer. It is concluded that further experimentation is necessary before P.dasyrhachis can be recommended for large-scale reforestation [14]

Q. Propagation : Propagated by seed or cutting [26]. Seeds should be collected only from trees at least 20 years old. Fruit is collected in July-August, dried and beaten to remove fibrous cover. The seed coat is very coriaceous (leathery). The weight of 1000 seeds is about 37 g. Seed is stored in earthen ware pots. Even after 2 years of storage germination rate is still 70-75%. Seeds are immersed in boiling water and kept warm. Seeds are transplanted to pots (text not clear??) when they start sprouting. [14,26]

R. Hazards and protection : Few insects have been recorded as damaging the leaves, whereas large stem-boring insects attack older trees[26].

S. Conservation :

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unknown

5

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Indochina, Malay Peninsula, Indonesia , planted in many tropical countries

V. Miscellaneous4 : When hedge were pruned 2-4 times per year, an annual yield of prunings of 8 t/ha was found in Lampung (Indonesia), containing 200 kg nitrogen [26]., (which may have to be replaced for continuing production -Kay 2007).

W. Further readings5 :

van Noordwijk, M. & Rudjiman, 1997. Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miquel) Kurz. In Faridah Hanum, I. & van der Maesen, L.J.G. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 11. Auxiliary Plants. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 207-209.

Nguyen Ba Chat 1987: Techniques of P. dasyrhachis planting. Forest Science Information. Forest Research Institute Hanoi.

Trieu Van Hung 1994; Biological characteristics of forest enrichment species Canarium album, P.dasyrhachis, Cinnamomum sp., Michelia sp. Scientific Report. Forestry College, Hanoi

X. References: 2)

Nguyen et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands,

14) FSIV/JICA 2003: Use of Indigenous Tree Species in Reforestation in Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 188 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese

³

black pine [1], merkus pine, tenasserim pine [10], Mindoro pine, Sumatran pine [5]

C. Synonym

³

Pinus sumatrana Junghuhn (1846), Pinus merkusiana Cooling & Gaussen (1970) [5], Pinus finlaysoniana Wallich, Pinus latteri Mason, Pinus merkiana Gordon [14]

D. Other1

³

merkus pine (Trade name) [14] - paek sorng bai, paek yang, khoua (Laos) [1] - thong nhua, thong hai la (Vietnam) [3, 5] damar batu, damar bunga, uyam, tusam (Indonesia) [5, 14] tapulau, Mindoro pine (Philippines) [5, 12] - son-songbai, son-haang-maa, kai-plueak-dam (Thailand) [5] - pitchpin du Cambodge, pin a deux feuilles (France) [10] - Merkuskiefer, Thong (Germany) [10]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

1

Rss;søwkBIr Source: [13]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sral [6], sral sleuk pi [13] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : not available Family: Pinaceae Genus: Pinus L. Species: Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese

Source :[ 4]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Pinus merkusii is a large evergreen, coniferous tree that occurs as two distinctive provenances, the Sumatran pine and the Mainland pine. The tree reaches a height of 20-40 m [10] on the Asian mainland (30-50 m [1], 30-35 m [3], 30-45 m [14]) and 55-70 m [10] on Sumatra, Indonesia (50-70 m [5]). The bole is straight and cylindrical, free of branches for 15-25 m [5] (12-20 m [10]) and with an average DBH of 60-90 cm [10], but never more than 140 cm [10] on the mainland and 50-80 cm [10] in Sumatra (55 cm, but occasionally up to 140 cm [5], 60-80 cm [3]). The crown of young trees is pyramidal to egg-shaped with a prominent straight leader shoot while crowns of old trees broaden and take an umbrella shape. [Bark]: The bark forms plates which are more than 6 cm thick [10], reddish-brown, ash-grey or blackish above and greyisch brown underneath with deep longitudinal cracks. [Leaves]: The dark green needles grow in pairs of 2 and are up to 25 cm long [10] (Mainland variety: 19-25 cm [10], Sumatran: 16-19 cm [10], 15-25 cm [3], 16- 25 cm [5]), slender but rigid, with persistent basal sheaths. In each year 2-7 whorls [10] are formed. [Flowers]: No information available. [Fruits]: The fruit (=cone) occurs solitary or in pairs on the twigs. It is reddish brown, cylindrical with a flattened tip or longish conical with no stalk, 5-8 cm long [10] on Sumatra and 7-13 cm [10] on the mainland (5-11 cm [5]) and twice as thick after opening. Until it ripens it remains in an upright position

brown to black, egg-shaped and slightly flat seeds which are 1.5-2 cm long [3] bearing a thin wing. [1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 14]

I. Wood properties: The wood of Pinus merkusii is heavy softwood with distinctive sapwood and heartwood, yellowish and dark yellow respectively. The heartwood density of trees from Sumatra is 0.565-0.750 g/m³ at 15% moisture content [12], while trees grown in Myanmar and Indo-China have a lower density of 0.480.53 g/m³ at 15% mc [12] (0.88- 0.96 g/m³ at unknown mc [3]). "Tests in Indonesia at green condition showed the following mechanical properties: Modulus of rupture is 53 N/mm³; modulus of elasticity 10,290 N/mm³; compression parallel to grain 26 N/mm³; compression shear 6-7 N/mm³; cleavage radial 39 N/mm; cleavage tangential 38 N/mm; janka side hardness 2,450 N and janka end hardness 2,705 N. At 15% moisture content, modulus of rupture is 83 N/mm³, modulus of elasticity 12,445 N/mm³, compression parallel to grain 44 N/mm³, compression shear 8-9 N/mm³, cleavage radial 42 N/mm, cleavage tangential 55 N/mm, janka side hardness 3,800 N and janka end hardness 4,790 N. Test in Malaysia at 159% moisture content showed the following mechanical properties: modulus of rupture is 32 N/mm³, modulus of elasticity 4,600 N/mm³, compression parallel to grain 15 N/mm³, compression shear 7 N/mm³, cleavage radial 35 N/mm, cleavage tangential 36 N/mm and janka side hardness 2,310 N. At 15% moisture content, modulus of rupture is 41 N/mm³, modulus of elasticity 4,600 N/mm³, compression parallel to grain 24 N/mm³, compression shear 10 N/mm³, cleavage radial

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

on the branch and does not droop. Each cone contains on average 20-25 [10] viable pale reddish

2

38 N/mm, cleavage tangential 46 N/mm and janka side hardness 3,200 N. The rates of shrinkage from green to oven dry 4.9% radial and 8.3% tangential. Seasoning properties of P. merkusii timber are good and no serious difficulties are encountered, if the provided stock is converted soon after felling and protected during drying. Kiln-drying properties are rated as good, but resin and staining may cause problems. High-temperature drying (at 115°C) takes 24 hours for boards 2.5 cm thick and 48 hours for boards 5 cm thick. For wood of P. merkusii in Indonesia, a drying temperature of 54-82°C and a corresponding relative humidity of 76% to 30% is recommended. Pine timber is only moderately durable, and often prone to termite attack. It is also susceptible to blue stain, ambrosia beetles and dry-wood borers. Graveyard tests on P. merkusii in Indonesia showed a service life in contact with the ground of 1-4.5 years. Heartwood of P. merkusii can be impregnated with CCA preservative quite well; it is classified as 'permeable'. Wood of P. merkusii contains 55% cellulose, 24% lignin, 14% pentosan, 1.1% ash and 0.2% silica. The solubility is 6.3% in alcohol-benzene, 0.4% in cold water, 3.2% in hot water and 11.1% in a 1% NaOH solution. Anatomically, P. merkusii is a typical hard pine. The wood is denser, the transition from earlywood to latewood more abrupt and vertical resin ducts are larger than in P. kesiya. The energy value of the wood is 20,300-23,200 kJ/kg" [12]. [3, 12]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 21°N to 3°S [4] (23°N to 2°S [14]). Pinus merkusii can be most clearly defined as a tropical pine species, with the southernmost natural occurrence of all pine species, and the only one whose natural distribution extends into the southern hemisphere. The natural range is characterized by extensive enclaves, from eastern Myanmar across Laos, northern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

and the Philippines to Sumatra. "It can also be found in an area extending from NE-India to S-Tibet"

3

[10]. However, it does not occur on the Malay Peninsula. Pinus merkusii grows frequently in pure closed coniferous forests, mixed coniferous forests (together with P. kesiya), dry dipterocarp forest, deciduous moist lowland dipterocarp forest and solitary on former agricultural land, on barren land created by volcanic eruptions, in fire-prone grassland or shrubland and on former Hevea brasiliensis plantations. It can be frequently found in areas which have been disturbed by fire where it is a rapid colonizer. [4, 10, 12, 14]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Pinus merkusii has a large altitudinal range from 30 to over 1,800 m above sea level [3] (800-1,200 m a.s.l. [1] and 100-1,000 m [1], 0-2,000 m [12], 0-1,600 m [4]). In its natural range, tropical, sub-tropical and warmer-temperate and monsoonal climates are dominant with a mean annual rainfall that varies from 1,500 mm/yr [4] in Myanmar and Thailand to almost 4,000 mm/yr [4] in Indonesia and the Philippines. In general a mean annual rainfall of 900-3,000 mm/yr [4] (1,000-2,000 mm/yr [10], 1,0003,500 mm/yr [12]) is suitable and a dry season of 0-5 months [5] (0-6 months [4], 3-6 months [10]) is tolerated. In Indonesia, however, the dry season normally only lasts for 2 months [4] with no month receiving less than 50 mm rainfall [14]. The mean annual temperature varies from 19°C to 28°C [4] (21-28°C [12], 18°C in the mountains and 27°C in the lowland plains [10]). The mean maximum

temperature of hottest month is between 24-35ºC [4] whereas the mean minimum temperature of coldest month is 5-24ºC [4]. The absolute minimum temperature is 2ºC [4]. Merkus pine is a light demanding pioneer species. It is very wind resistant, termite resistant and especially older stands show a very high fire resistance. Although it is generally regarded as not frost resistant, temperatures may drop below 0ºC in high altitudes with light frosts during winter months. [1, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 14]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Coastal Cardamoms (A), Northern Cardamoms (B), Central Lowlands (d), Southern Annamites (g). [6] [Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]: Kampong Thom (X:569170 Y:1389705), Koh Kong (X:367557 Y:1240480), Koh Kong (X:385020 Y:1244184), Koh Kong (X:381316 Y:1234130), Kampong Thom (X:524456 Y:1389441), Pursat (X:318609 Y:1335465), Kampong Thom (X:536722 Y:1467865), Kampong Thom (X:528710 Y:1407854), Kampong Speu (X:401716 Y:1249676), Koh Kong (X:325498 Y:1304645), Kampong Thom (X:531601 Y:1409923), Mondul Kiri (X:738132 Y:1366689). [6]

M. soil and site conditions : This tree naturally occurs only on topographically and edaphically extreme sites like rocky slopes and alluvial soils and acid ultisols on sandstone which are often poorly drained. Poor and very acidic soils are tolerated very well. [1, 3, 4, 10]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is used as a general-purpose softwood for house construction, window frames, door frames, flooring, furniture, matches, chop-sticks, paper pulp, long fiber pulp, pit props, transmission poles, ship- and boat construction, vehicle-building, containers, boxes, industrial- and domestic woodware, fuelwood and charcoal. "Some provenances are suitable for making sliced or peeled veneers" [10]. [1, 3, 4, 14] [Non-wood]: The species is a high oleo-resin yielder and commercial tapping is often practiced on plantation scale. Each tree gives 3-4 kg of resin per year [3] which is a precious raw material used in medicine, ship caulking, paints, printing and the perfume industry. Other sources mention much higher values with old trees yielding 30-60 kg [12] of crude gum per year, 20-40 kg [12] of pure resin

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

lava flows. It is growing well on dry sandy soils, gravely soils, red tropical loams (latosols), clay soils,

4

and 7-14 kg [12] of turpentine per year. Annual resin yields amount to 420-750 kg/ha [4, 10]. "Ethyl alcohol extracts of P. merkusii showed anti-cancer activity in tests in the Philippines" [12]. [1, 3, 4, 12, 14] [Others]: It is often used for rehabilitation of degraded areas because of its tolerance to fire, poor soil conditions and its ability to shade out 'alang-alang' grass (Imperata cylindrica). "In Indonesia P. merkusii has been successfully intercropped with Irish potatoes" [12]. It can also be used for soil improvement, erosion control and windbreaks. [1, 3, 4, 5, 12 ]

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Pinus merkusii grows frequently in pure closed coniferous forests, mixed coniferous forests (together with P. kesiya), dry dipterocarp forest, deciduous moist lowland dipterocarp forest and solitary on former agricultural land, on barren land created by volcanic eruptions, in fire-prone grassland or shrubland and on former Hevea brasiliensis plantations. It can be frequently found in areas which have been disturbed by fire where it is a rapid colonizer. It is a light demanding pioneer, quite fire resistant with the ability to shade out 'alang-alang' grass (Imperata cylindrica), making it an ideal species for soil conservation and afforestation purposes.

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[Natural Regeneration]: "Successful natural regeneration is only possible, where a sufficient amount of sunlight reaches the ground, for example in open Pinus merkusii stands, or dry dipterocarp forests but also in moist dipterocarp forests where gaps with at least 14 m diameter are present. In Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, controlled burning is carried out to promote the growth of seedlings" [10]. [Establishment]: For timber production, trees are planted at a spacing of 3 x 1 m, or 3 x 2 m [4]. For resin production, the spacing has to be increased to 4 x 4 m [4]. "During the first 3-5 years (from 18 months to 2-3 years [4]) the young trees pass through a 'grass stage' characterized by a densely needled, short shoot and minimal height growth. Instead a thick bark which is 1-2 times as thick as the woody stem, a dense needle cover and an extensive root system are developed to adapt to the periodic dryness and frequent fires" [10]. One recommendation is to keep the plants in the nursery during this phase even if most pines are transplanted much earlier. [Management]: Due to the grass stage, weeding must be carried out 2-3 times during the first year [10] and 1-2 times per year during the following years [10] until the crowns close to form a continuous canopy. Young trees of P. merkusii require increased weeding compared to Pinus caribaea, Pinus oocarpa and Pinus kesiya. "The first thinning is usually carried out in the 9th or 10th year with thinnings about every 5 years thereafter" [10]. Rotation cycles of 30 years [12] are needed for optimal timber production with a stand density of 28-29 m²/ha after 30 years [10]. For the production of pulpwood, a cutting cycle of 15 years [12] is usually practiced.

5

[Yield]: The growth of young trees in the field is very variable, especially within the Mainland provenances, which are also very bushy and have coarse branches. In later stages of development the growth is rather rapid with a mean height increment of 1.2 m/yr [4]. Generally on sites of average soil quality, a mean annual volume increment of 22.4 m³/ha in a 25-year rotation [4] can be observed. Growth data of Pinus merkusii plantations in Indonesia, 1954: "Mean annual increment: 4-25 m³/ha (10 years), 14-30 m³/ha (20 years), 16-27 m³/ha (30 years). Top height: 10-20 m (10 years), 22-33 m (20 years), 28-41 m (30 years). Mean diameter: 58.5 cm (good site, 30 years), 38.9 cm (normal site, 30 years). Standing volume: 397 m³/ha (good site, 30 years), 248 m³/ha (normal site, 30 years). Total yield: 814 m³/ha (good site, 30 years), 471 m³/ha (normal site, 30 years)” [10]. [Resin Harvesting]: "Several methods of harvesting the resin are practiced. The resin is found in the intercellular canals in the wood (especially sapwood) and products are often termed 'naval stores' because of their historic use for ship caulking. Living pine trees are tapped (wounded), the first cut of about 1.3 cm wide and 30 cm long being made 30-40 cm from the ground, followed by a series of chippings until breast height. A sulphuric acid solution (usually 40-60%) is applied immediately after chipping. This process yields the 'gum naval stores', still the major source of the worlds supply of resin and turpentine. 'Wood naval stores' can be obtained by solvent extraction of stumps of old trees; the resin obtained in this manner is less pure. Turpentine and wood resin can also be obtained as byproducts from the kraft (sulphate) pulping of pines. Turpentine is removed from the chip digester during the initial steaming and condensed from the relief gases. This method gives 'kraft naval stores'" [12].

[4, 6, 10, 12, 14]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: In stands, trees reach sexual maturity with 20 years [10], solitary trees even earlier. In Sumatra ripe seeds are produced most abundantly between July and November [12], but viable seeds are produced throughout the year. Only cones that have just changed their color from green to brown should be collected and air dried. There are normally 35-40 seeds per cone [14] and 50,000-60,000 seeds/kg [14]. "The weight of 1,000 seeds of Sumatran P. merkusii about 17 g, and of continental provenances of P. merkusii 25-33 g. The seeds can be stored for several years, provided they are kept dry, cold and in an airtight container. However, seeds of P. merkusii are reported to have a rather short viability if untreated with 42,000 fresh seeds/kg at sea level [10] and 28,000 fresh seeds/kg at 900 m a.s.l. [10]; seeds from Sumatra can be stored dry for only 1-2 years, and those from continental Asia during even shorter periods" [12]. They are poorly suited for shipping. [Seed propagation]: P. merkusii can be propagated by seeds, but natural regeneration develops better. It does also not perform well in the nursery, germination being slow after 10-12 days [4] (after 8-21 days [12]) and very poor with a rate of 40-60% [12]. Seeds need no pretreatment before sowing. However, they are often soaked in cold water overnight. To prevent damping-off in the nursery, welldrained beds should be used. Seeds are thinly broadcast over the beds and then covered with a layer of sand. After about 6-8 weeks [12], the trees will be 5-6 cm tall [12] and can then be transplanted to

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Agroforestry]: P.merkusii has been successfully intercropped with Irish potatoes in Indonesia.

6

nursery beds. The mycorrhiza fungus seems to be important for better growth. The seed beds can be inoculated with soil from older stands or by exposing them to older young plants, which are 30-80 cm high [10], which are already mycorrhizae carriers. "These 'mother' trees are planted a year before at a spacing of 1 x 1 m in the nursery beds intended for the next crop of seedlings (the mainland provenances can apparently be successfully inoculated using infected soil from matur stands)" [10]. After about 8 months [12] the seedlings of P. merkusii in nursery beds are 20-25 cm tall [4] and ready for planting into the field. [Vegetative propagation]: Vegetative propagation by tissue culture and cuttings is possible but up to now limited to the Sumatran provenance. "Suspensor, root tissue and hypocotyl segments of 2-weekold seedlings of P. merkusii have been used, and they all readily yield callus when cultured on a Murashige and Skoog mineral formulation supplemented with naphthalene acetic acid (0.25-0.65 ppm) and benzylamino purine (1.0-2.0 ppm)" [12]. [Provenances]: "The standard seed source areas for P. merkusii are Sumatra and Thailand. Seedlings raised from Sumatran seeds often miss the 'grass stage' and are thus better suited for plantations. The sources of genetically superior P. merkusii seed in Sumatra should be protected. The natural areas of distribution of this species in Malesia are comparatively small, and for this reason, protection of natural stands should be guaranteed. International provenance trials of P. kesiya and P. merkusii have been established throughout South-East Asia and also in northern Australia; they are coordinated by the Commonwealth Forestry Institute of Oxford (UK). In Thailand, trials of provenance hybrids of P. merkusii showed that hybrids of Thailand and Papua New Guinea provenances had better survival and length-growth than local provenances. P. merkusii seed orchards have been Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

established in Indonesia" [12].

7

[1, 3, 4, 10, 12, 14]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: The mainland provenances are not susceptible to insect attacks. However, the Sumatran provenance can be damaged by the measuring worm Milionia basalis which can defoliate whole stands. Secondary invaders like Pineus pini often appear after a Milionia attack. [4, 10] [Diseases]: Heavy mortality in Merkus pine stands of Sumatra can occur from damping-off fungi like Mycosphaerella pini. On the mainland trees are not prone to attack by fungi. [4, 10] [Others]: As a seedling and young tree it can be damaged by every kind of ground cover, like shed leaves and even own needle litter from mature trees. [4]

S. Conservation : This species is has been classified as vulnerable 'VU' [15] (near threatened 'LR, nt' [6]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees, due to its valuable wood and the very high demand in markets. In Cambodia this species is over-exploited and in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not implemented. Distribution throughout the country is scattered and its habits have been destroyed by forestland conversions and selective illegal logging. More than 100 trees are threatened in Cambodia by illegal logging and uncontrolled fire (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000 [16]). The number of mature trees has been reduced significantly and it is now difficult to find significant sources of germplasm. "Resin tapping (harvesting) is prohibited by Cambodian forestry law 1988 unless special permission is granted by MAFF" [8]. [6, 8, 15, 16]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : The largest stands of Sral in Cambodia are found on the Kirirom Plateau (12 ha). It is also found in Kampong Thom, Koh Kong, Pursat, Kampong Speu and Mondulkiri. [6, 8, 9,]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]:

Vietnam, Myanmar, N-Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, S-China, Philippines (Mindoro, western Luzon) and Indonesia (Sumatra). [3, 4, 5, 12] [Introduced]: Asia: Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka. Africa: South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. [4]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Prospects]: "Pines are much planted trees because of their fast growth, ability to grow on comparatively poor soils and at high altitudes, and because of the detailed information available on their silviculture. The quality of the wood is, however, often very poor. The production of better quality wood from pine plantations should be a research priority" [12].

W. Further readings5 : Arisman, H. and G.R. Powell. 1986. Effects of cone colour and seed extraction methods on yield and quality of seeds of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia. Seed Science and Technology 14, 177-190. [14]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Native]:

8

Cooling, E.N.G. 1968. Pinus merkusii. Fast Growing Timber Trees of the Lowland Tropics No. 4. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford. [14]

Cooling, E.N.G. and H. Gaussen 1970. In Indochina Pinus merkusiana sp. nov. et non P. merkusii Jungh. et De Vriese. Trav. Lab. Forest. Toulouse T. 1 V. 8 Art. 7. [5]

Pousujja R., J. Granhof and R.L. Willan. 1986. Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese. Seed Leaflet No. 7, Danida Forest Seed Centre, Humlebaek. [14]

X. References: [1] Lehmann, Lutz et al. 2003: Forests and trees of the Central Highlands of Xieng Khounang , Lao P.D.R.- A field guide

[2] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of Commercial Woods, unpublished.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. Hanoi

9

[4] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[5] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[6] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[7] Bertram, A., 2006: Own observations.

[8] CTSP, 2004: Cambodian Tree Species Monographs. Cambodian Tree Seed Project, Phnom Penh. 57pp.

[9] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[10] Lamprecht, H., 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ.

[11] Danida Forest Seed Centre, 2000: Conservation of genetic resources of Pinus merkusii in Thailand -Technical Note No. 58, October 2000.

[12] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp (Internet source)

[13] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[14] Hidayat, J.; Hansen, C-P., 2002: Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese. Seed Leaflet No. 60, Danida Forest Seed Centre, Humlebaek.

[15] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[16] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm (Internet source)

10

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.

³

Madras thorn [2], blackbead [5], blackbead tree, bread and cheese tree, Manila tamarind, quamachil, sweet inga [8]

C. Synonym

³

Acacia obliquifolia Mart. & Gall., Inga dulcis (Roxb.) Willd., Inga leucantha K. Presl, Inga pungens Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd., Mimosa dulcis Roxb., Mimosa monilifera Bert., Pithecellobium littorale Britton & Rose ex Record [5], Pithecolobium dulce [9]

D. Other1

³

temar (Ethiopia) [8] - tamar hindi (Arabia) [8] - amil, balati, dekhani babul (Bamgladesh) [8] - kway-tanyeng (Myanmar) [8] - damortis, kamanchilis, kamatsile (Philippines) [8] opiuma (Hawaii) [8] - dakhani babul, imli, jangal jelbi, jangle jalebi, vilayati babul, vilayati imli (N-India) [8] - kodukapuli, kodukkaapuli (S-India) [8] - asam koranji, asam belanda,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

asem londo (Indonesia) [8] - khaam th’ééd (Laos) [8] - asam

1

kranji, asam tinja (Malaysia) [8] - guama americano, guamuchil, quamachil (Spain) [8] - maramata, mkwaju wa kihindi

(E-Africa)

[8]

-

makham-khong,

makham-that

(Thailand) [8] - keo tây, me keo (Vietnam) [8]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

Gm
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ 'âmpül tük. [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae

Other : Leguminosales / Fabales Family: Fabaceae (subfamily: Mimosoideae) Genus: Pithecellobium Species: Pithecellobium dulce Source :[ 5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: P. dulce forms a small to medium-sized evergreen tree up to 15-20 m [5] (5-18 m [8], 18 m [2], 6-10 m [3], 10 m [6]) in height with a DBH of 30-50 cm, or even 100 cm [5] (80-100 cm [2]). It is usually multiple-stemmed, sometimes forming only a bushy treelet, but often forming a branchy tree with an irregular rounded crown and pliantly pendulous branches [5] (with irregular branches up to 30 m across [8]). A few slender whip-like branches often straggle well beyond the rest of the crown [5]. Bark is smooth, pale whitish-grey, lenticellate, often with horizontal ribs encircling the trunk and branches on branches and younger trees, becoming rougher and fissured on older boles. The shoots are randomly armed at nodes with pairs of stout and straight stipular spines 4-13 mm long [5], but are occasionally thornless. [Leaves]: The leaves are abruptly bipinnate with a single pair of pinnae per leaf and two pairs of leaflets per pinna, i.e. 4 leaflets in all per leaf [5]. Leaflets are 2.5-5.6 cm x 0.9-3.2 cm [5] ( 2-2.5 x 1-2

paler grey-green below, and have small glands, 0.3-0.8 mm tall and 0.4-0.7 mm in diameter [5] at the tip of the leaf stalk and the tip of the central leaf stalk. "New leaf growth coincides with the loss of old leaves, giving the tree an evergreen appearance" [8]. Thin spines are in pairs at the base of leaves, and range from 2 to 15 mm in length [8]. [Flowers]: The flowers are grouped in small dense sub-spherical heads, 7-12 mm in diameter, with 2030 flowers per head [5], the heads are arranged in fascicles of 2-4 in axils of leaves. The flowers are pale whitish green and the stamen (=male organ) filaments are white. There are 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) and 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) both fused into a tube and 22-42 stamens per flower [5] (50 stamens [8]), also basally united into a staminal tube. "Trees start to flower and fruit at 4-8 years of age. Flowering and fruiting can occur throughout the year as moisture permits, but usually flowering peaks during the dry season with pods ripening 2-4 months later" [5]. Flowering and fruiting occurs in Vietnam and Laos from March to November [4]. [Fruits]: "The fruits (=pods) are distinctive in shape and color, spirally curved or coiled into 1-2 circles, noticeably constricted between the seeds, and green tinged red, turning bright rose- or pillar-box red as they ripen and reddish brown after dehiscence. The unripe pods are fleshy becoming dry and papery after opening" [5]. The pods have a size of 10-15 x 1.5 cm [8] and are open along both sides to reveal 8-12 seeds [5] (5-10 [8]), which persist after the pods open attached by the fleshy white, pale

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cm [8]), obliquely elliptic or oblong elliptic with 4-7 pairs of pinnate veins, deep olive green above,

2

pink or occasionally red, aril [5]. Seeds are shiny black, plumply compressed lentiform, and 7-13 x 611 x 2-4 mm [5] (up to 2 cm long [8]). [2, 3, 5, 6, 8]

I. Wood properties: [Wood properties]: The sapwood is yellowish in color, the heartwood yellowish or reddish-brown. The wood of P. dulce is strong and durable but also soft and flexible. It is moderately hard and usually straight grained. It has a density of about 0.59 g/cm³, is easy to saw and finishes to a smooth surface. The calorific value is low with 5,177-5,600 kcal/kg [8]. [8]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 28°N to 2°N [5]. P.dulce is naturalized in all the tropical regions of the world. Vegetation types are deciduous forests, dry tropical and dry thorn shrub forests as well as secondary forests. [1, 3, 5]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : P. dulce occurs at low and medium altitudes between 0 and 500 m a.s.l. [4] (900-1,800 m [8], 0-1,550 m [5]). Generally found in the plains, it can also survive in undulating terrain. It grows well in dry and subhumid areas, but thrives best in dry hot tropical and subtropical climates with an annual rainfall of 250-1,650 mm [8] (700 - 1,800 mm [5]) a mean annual temperature of 0-48°C [5] and a dry season of 4-6 months [5]. It can withstand considerable heat and drought due to its extensive root system, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

however it is susceptible to frost. It is a strong light demander, but can resist to a considerable amount

3

of shade. [4, 5, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : In its native range P. dulce grows on young superficial, often extremely rocky, shallow and skeletal soils, primarily of volcanic origin in areas where soils have often suffered severe abuse through slash and burn agriculture, desiccation and erosion. It is also found along river banks on alluvial soils and sands. It prefers well-drained deep and loamy agricultural soils but can grow even on heavy clays, including black cotton vertisols. However, it is adaptable to most soils including acidic clays, limestone soils, infertile soils, saline soils and sandy soils with a brackish watertable. It also grows in waterlogged soils but not well. P. dulce is thus extremely adaptable in terms of both its soil and climatic requirements. "List of suitable soil types: alluvial soils, arenosols, arid soils, calcareous soils, clay soils, gravelly soils, limestone soils, saline soils, sandy soils, ultisols, vertisols" [5]. [2, 4, 5, 8]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: P. dulce wood is not of very high quality. Generally it can be used in construction and for posts. "In parts of India, it is planted and harvested to fuel brick kilns. In South India, it is used to make drums, while in China, it is said to be used for matches. The short spines and irregular, crooked growth make it less attractive for wood uses" [1]. P. dulce is fast-growing and coppices vigorously but due to its smokiness and low calorific value (5,177-5,600 kcal/kg [8]) it yields only low quality fuelwood. [Non-wood]: Food: "Pods contain a pulp that is variously sweet and acid, commonly white but also red. The seed and pulp are made into a sweet drink similar to lemonade and also eaten roasted or fresh. The seeds are used fresh in curries in India. In Mexico, Cuba and Thailand, the pods are harvested and are customary sold on roadside stands" [8]. Fodder: "The pods and leaves gathered from hedge clippings are devoured by all livestock; horses, goats, camels, cattle and sheep. The presscake residue from seed oil extraction may be used as stock feed" [8]. Apiculture: "Flowers are visited by bees and yield good quality honey" [8]. Gum or resin: "The wounded bark exudes a mucilaginous reddish-brown gum somewhat like gum Arabic" [8]. Tannin or dyestuff: "Tannin, used to soften leather, can be extracted from the bark (about 25%),

Lipids: "Seeds contain a greenish oil (20%), which, after refining and bleaching, can be used for food or in the making of soap and can substitute kapok and ground nut seed oils" [8]. Medicine: "In Haiti root and bark decoctions are taken orally against diarrhoea; fruit pulp is taken orally to stop blood flow in case of heamoptysis. The seed juice is inhaled into the nostrils against chest congestion and pulverised seeds are ingested for internal ulcers. The leaves, when applied as a plaster, can allay pain of venereal sores and taken with salt can cure indigestion, but can also produce abortion. The root bark may be used to cure dysentery. The bark is used medicinally as a febrifuge" [8]. [Others]: The tree is extensively planted for its dense shade. Since it can grow on waste and denuded lands, P. dulce can afforest and conserve poor soils. P. dulce forms root nodules with Rhizobium bacteria. Nodulation is common in all types of soil, but quantitative data on nitrogen fixation has not been reported. Very popular as an ornamental at roadsides and is used in topiary (plant sculpturing). Trees with variegated leaflets are available as ornamental pot plants in Hawaii. With regular trimming, P. dulce makes a dense, almost impenetrable thorny hedge that keeps out livestock, acts as a windbreak and forms useful shelter belts. In hedges it is commonly mixed with other species like Ziziphus mauritiana and Azadirachta indica.

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seeds and leaves; the bark is also used to dye fishnets a yellow color" [8].

4

[2, 8]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No Class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: P.dulce occurs in deciduous forests, dry tropical and dry thorn scrub forests. It is a hardy, nitrogen-fixing tree and is valued more because it tolerates harsh sites, heat and drought, and heavy cutting, than because of the products which it produces or its commercial potential. It is thus planted mainly on roadsides, field boundaries, and in towns and backyards, rather than in plantations or formal agroforestry systems. Perhaps its greatest value is as a hedging plant as it resprouts vigorously after close and repeated cutting, and forms a deep, dense, spiny, impenetrable barrier. "It is grown extensively as a hedge in the warmer drier parts of India, especially in the south, and in many other countries" [5]. [Establishment]: For hedges, seeds may be sown in 2 rows of 15 x 30 cm" [8]. [Management]: The species is fast growing. Trees reach a height of 12-15 m and a girth of 0.91-1.2 m in about 40 years [8]. In favorable soil conditions, it may reach a height of 10 m in 5-6 years [8] (12 m in 5-6 years [2]). It coppices vigorously and produces root suckers upon injury to roots. The tree can stand considerable amount of pruning, lopping and nibbling by sheep and goats. It also competes with weeds and outgrows fast.

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[2, 5, 8]

5

Q. Propagation : Vegetative propagation is done by using cuttings, air layering and grafting. Stands are established by natural regeneration, direct sowing and planting stock. Natural reproduction occurs freely from selfseeding, especially around the margins of cultivated fields where plentiful seeding can be found under mature trees. Plants yield viable seeds at an early age. The ripe pods are collected and dried in the sun, till they dehisce. Unbroken pods are thrashed to extract the seed, winnowed and cleaned. No pre-treatment is required and soaking actually reduces germination and heating kills the seeds. Direct sowing is successful. The plants are best propagated by transplants in the nursery. The seeds are either broadcast in the raised nursery beds, or in the polythene bags, soon after collection. The beds must have well-pulverized soil and organic manure and be profusely watered. Germination commences from 7-10 days, and is completed in 2-3 weeks [8]. Seedlings may be pricked out from the germination beds to transplant beds or in polythene bags after 6 months. Young plants need the shelter from dry and hot winds. They are taken out with a ball of earth when about a year old. Manila tamarind can also be readily established by branch-cuttings. [5, 8]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Larvae of Subpandesma anysa attack the fruit and seeds in Hawaii. A hemipteran insect (Umbonia crassicornis) is a pest in Puerto Rico. Larvae of Indarbela spp bore into the bark of trees in India. Polydesma umbricola is a serious pest on the Island of Reunion" [8]. [Diseases]: "Leaf spot pathogens include Cercospora mimosae, Collectotrichum dematium, C. pithecellobii, Phyllosticta ingae-dulcis and P. pithecellobii. Heart rot (Phellinus spp) has been reported in India" [8]. [Others]: "P. dulce is known to be susceptible to branch breakage, trunk snap and uprooting in high winds and is amongst the most heavily damaged species in hurricanes" [5].

S. Conservation : "P. dulce is widely distributed, often locally abundant and thrives on disturbance. It is of little or no conservation concern" [5].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : P. dulce was studied in Kompong Thom, Kandal, Kampot. [7]

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Mexico, Paraguay,

[8] [Introduced]: Cambodia, China, Cuba, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Vietnam, Virgin Islands (US), Zanzibar. [8]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Fruit Properties]: "The fresh pod consists of 25% peel, 50% aril and 25% seed. The aril contains per 100 g: water 75.8-77.8 g, protein 2.3-3 g, fat 0.4-0.5 g, carbohydrates 18.2-19.6 g, fiber 1.1-1.2 g, ash 0.6-0.7 g, calcium 13 mg, phosphorus 42 mg, iron 0.5 mg, sodium 19 mg, potassium 20.2 mg, vitamin A 25 IU, thiamine 0.24 mg, riboflavin 0.1 mg, niacin 0.6 mg and vitamin C 133 mg. The energy value is 330 kJ/100 g" [6]. [Disadvantages of cultivation]: "The main disadvantage of P. dulce is weediness. It is thorny, produces abundant natural regeneration in many areas where introduced and planted, can spread quickly by bird dispersal of seeds, coppices rapidly after cutting or fire, and produces vigourous, very thorny root suckers triggered by injury to tree roots, a set of traits that mean it can invade pastures and other ruderal sites and can be difficult to kill once trees are established. It is notably weedy in the

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Peru, Surinam, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela.

6

Caribbean, in Florida and in Hawaii where it is naturalized throughout the dry lowlands and classified as a pest. It is also recorded as a weed in India and in Tamil Nadu, where it is self-sown from hedge plants and avenue trees on all roadsides and waste lands. Repeated attempts to replace P. dulce with other species have failed. Importation of P. dulce to Australia is banned because of its known potential to become a weed and the possible threat posed to Australian pastures and natural communities. While thorniness is an advantage in hedging, the sharp thorns and irritating sap - which can cause skin welts and eye irritations - make harvesting and handling of branches and twigs difficult and limit its utilization, particularly in parts of SE Asia. For these reasons it has been abandoned as a street tree in south Florida" [5]. [Terminology]: "The genus is often written as Pithecollobium or Pithecolobium. The genus name is derived from the Greek words pithekos (an ape) and lobos (a lobe), alluding to the pods, shaped like the human ears. This species was named and described botanically in 1795 from Coromandel, India, where it had been introduced. The specific name, meaning sweet, doubtless refers to the edible seed pulp" [8]. [History]: "During 1521-1815, P. dulce was introduced to the Philippines from Mexico aboard one of the Spanish government galleons that sailed between Acapulco and Manila, along with 200 other American species including other woody legumes such as Gliricidia, Leucaena, Prosopis and Samanea (Merrill, 1912). An early (pre-1800) introduction to Asia is certain, given that although P. dulce is native to tropical America, it was first described and named in 1798 by Roxburgh from material collected in India, reported to have been introduced from the Philippines. The very wide present-day pantropical distribution, extent of naturalization and the great abundance of local Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

vernacular names, provide further evidence of the wide distribution and cultivation of P. dulce across

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the tropics in early historical times. It is particularly abundant, and often weedy in the Caribbean (e.g. in Puerto Rico with Prosopis pallida along the fringes of mangrove), Hawaii (in pastures), and warmer and drier regions of south India and the Gangeatic plains. Elsewhere it is a common ornamental and shade tree. Seed of P. dulce was included amongst a package of dry zone Central American species widely distributed for testing in a new series of species elimination trials in the mid 1980s" [5].

W. Further readings5 : AQIS, 1996. Madras Thorn. Pithecellobium dulce. Plant Quarantine Leaflet No. 115. Canberra, Australia: Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. Department of Primary Industries and Energy. [5]

Anonymous, 1989. Asam Kranji dan Asam Londo[Dialium indum and Pithecellobium dulce]. ajalah ASRI No 26. [6]

Brewbaker JL, 1992. Pithecellobium dulce - sweet and thorny. NFT Highlights, No. 92-01:2 pp.; 5 ref. [5]

Hendro Sunarjono H, Coronel RE, 1991. Pithecellobium dulce. In: Verheij EWM, Coronel RE eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 2. Edible Fruits and Nuts. Wageningen, Netherlands: Pudoc, 256-257. [5]

Kundu H, Panda NC, Sahu BK, 1983. Leaves of inga dulcis (Manila tamarind; Pithecellobium dulce) as a fodder for goats. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 53(6):669-671; 7 ref. [5]

NFTA. 1992. Pithecellobium dulce: sweet and thorny. NFTA 92-01. Waimanalo. [8]

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations. [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9) :Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. 1994. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA. [5] CABI, 2003: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition) - CAB INTERNATIONAL. (CD-ROM). [6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM). [7] Nielsen, I., 1981: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Vol. 19. LégumineusesMimosoïdées. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, Paris. pp. 108110. [8] World Agroforestry Center: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source) [9] ECOPORT Species Database: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

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[4] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don.] ³

Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don.

B. English name (s)

³

podocarp, brown pine [25]

C. Synonym

³

Nageia neriifolia (D.Don.) O.K. 1891; Nagleia discolor

A. Latin name

(s)

(Blume) O.K., Podocarpus annamensis N.E. Gray; P. discolor Blume 1847; P. leptostachya Blume 1849; P. neglecta Blume 1849; P. decipiens N.E. Gray; P. polyantha (Wasscher) Gaussen, P. junghuhniana Miq. 1851, [16,24]

D. Other1

³

Prince of Woods (India) [12]; ka dong (Laos); antok (Indonesia-Java); beberas (Indonesia-Sumatera); kayu cina (Irian Jaya); podo bukit, jati bukit (Malaysia-Peninsular); ki beling (Sabah, Malaysia-East); mala adelfa (Philippinesgeneral); thitmin (Burma); phayanai (Thailand-general); phailamthon (Thai-NE); khunmai (Thai-E) thông tre, thông

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trúc dào, banh niên tùng, thông tre nam (Vietnam) [8,16].

1

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

RsUl Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sro:l [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Pinales Family: Podocarpaceae Gunus: Podocarpus L´Her. ex Persson

Species: Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don [16] Source :[2 ; 16]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A medium-sized tree that can reach 25 m height on fertile soil. Bole straight and cylindrical, branches verticillate [2]; tree, 10-15 m high, rarely taller [4]; evergreen tree up to 20 m high [5]. Trees up to 35 m high, up to 100 cm diameter, bole straight [8]. A medium-sized to fairly large tree up to 35 (-45) m tall, bole columnar, branchless for up to 22 m, up to 100 cm in diameter, rarely spurred or even buttressed, crown frequently dome-shaped [16,24]. [Bark]: Yellow brown [2]; grey-brown, slightly flaking, often fluted at base [5]. The dark to light-brown bark is stringy [7]; bark greyish-brown, peeling off in longitudinal flakes. Branches spreading or ascending [8].

[Leaves]: Alternate, linear, tip gradually acute, 7-15 cm long and 0.9-1.9 wide. Midrib clearly evident on both surfaces, margin curved downwards. Petiole 0.3-0.5 cm long, fissured beneath [2]. Leaf 7-15 (-20) x 1-2 cm, alternate, spiral or clustered, linear-lanceolate, pointed at both ends, leathery, pale green below. Mid-vein distinct on both sides, but side-veins very faint. Stalks 0.2-0.5 cm [5]. Leaves alternate, linear or lanceolate, usually slightly curved, 2.5-18.0 by 0.5-1.5 cm, leathery, mid-vein raised beneath, flat or slightly raised above, base wedge-shaped, apex long, acuminate. Juvenile

spreading scales; juvenile leaves acuminate, adult leaves (7-) 8-18 cm x (1.0-) 1.1-1.8 cm, midrib above abruptly raised, (0.4-) 0.6-0.8 mm wide [16]. Juvenile leaves 15-24 by up to 2.4 cm, acuminate and acute, narrowing abruptly at the base to a short petiole, becoming linear-lanceolate and c. 1.6 cm wide on older fast-growing saplings in open situations. Leaves of mature trees similar with a short petiole up to 6 mm. Shade leaves acuminate, 8-12 by 1.2-1.8 cm. More exposed leaves linearlanceolate, 12-18 by 1.1-1.5 cm or on particularly large trees more nearly linear and 7-10 by 1.0-1.1 cm. Midrib abruptly raised on the upper side of the leaf at least 0.3 mm high and usually 0.6-0.8 mm wide but as little as 0.4 mm wide on the less vigorous leaves or in the Borneo region on most leaves. [Fruit]: Male cone sessile, usually 3 cones grouped at leaf axil, subterminal, ovoid, when old, 2-5 cm long. Female cone solitary, pedicel 0.5-1.0 cm long, receptacle fleshy, flat below. Two bracts caducous, 1.5 cm long, 1 cm wide. Fruit violet when mature [2]. Cones pale yellow, in leaf axils, male and female on different trees. Males in dense, catkin-like clusters (stroboli), 2-5 cm, usually solitary, but sometimes 2-3(5) together. Females solitary on thick, fleshy cup (receptacle) ± 0.5 cm, stalks 0.51.0 cm [5]. Fruit are round and blue-black and ripen during the rainy season in about June-July [7].. Cones ovoid, 0.8-1.6 cm high. Male cones solitary or in clusters of 2-4, normally sessile, 2.0-4.5 cm long, with several spirally arranged, basal bracts. Female cones solitary, axillary, peduncle 0.4-2.2 cm long. Receptacle orange-red when ripe, obconical-ellipsoid, 4-10 by 2-6 mm base with 2 subulate bracts, 2-6 mm long. Mature seed green to purple, outer layer fleshy to coriaceous, middle layer

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leaves wider, with obtuse to mucronate apex [8]. Foliage buds ovate, acute or blunt, often with

2

stony, inner layer papyraceous [8]. Pollen cones solitary or in twos or threes, sessile; receptacle red when mature [24,27]. P. neriifolius is a variable species not always easily distinguishable from P. polystachyus. It occurs scattered. Cones April-May, mature ones August to November [8].

I. Wood properties: Podocarp is a light- to medium-weight softwood with specific gravity of 415-790 kg/m³. The heartwood is greyish yellow or pale brown to golden brown and often not clearly demarcated from the paler sapwood. Grain usually straight. Texture fine and even; wood with little or no figure, occasionally with darker streaks near the pith resulting from compression wood, lustrous. Growth rings generally indistinct, sometimes marked by narrow, dense latewood bands; diffuse parenchyma, rarely evident to the naked eye; rays very fine, not visble to the naked eye [16]. A test of wood of P. neriifolius from Fiji at 12% m.c. showed the following mechanical properties: Modulus of rupture 98.5 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 10,765 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 56 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain 11 N/mm², shear 13 N/mm², cleavage 32 N/mm² radial and 40.5 N/mm² tangential, Janka side hardness 5,050 N, and Janka end hardness 7,920 N. The rates of shrinkage of podocarp wood are fairly low: from green to 12% m.c. 2.3% radial and 4.1% tangential, and from green to oven dry 3.3% radial and 5.7% tangential. The wood is easy to dry without significant defects, but face checking and twist are common problems in unweighted boards, whereas juvenile wood checks badly. On average it takes 23 days to dry 25 mm thick boards of P. neriifolius to 15% m.c. The recommended kiln drying schedule specifies a temperature of 54-82ºC with corresponding relative humidity of 76-30%. In Malaysia it is recommended to dip the stock in an

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anti-stain solution immediately after conversion and before drying. Boards 25 mm thick are dried to

3

15% m.c. in 8 days using the Malaysian kiln drying schedule G [16]. Podocarp wood is easy to saw, but softer boards show a tendency to crumble on end grain. The wood can be planed, shaped, turned, mortized, and sanded with good results and to a smooth finish, but the results of boring are sometimes rated as moderate. Generally the wood holds nails well, but large nails may cause some splitting. The gluing, staining, varnishing and painting properties are stisfactory. The peeling properties are rated as good with negligible degrade upon drying; pretreatment is not needed. Podocarp wood is rated as non-durable when in contact with the soil or exposed to the weather. It is susceptible to termite attack, pinhole borers, longhorn beetles and marine borers, but not to Lyctus. The sapwood is permeable but the heartwood is moderately resistant to impregnation [16].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : About 30 species are present in Malesia, of which 15 in New Guinea and 13 in Borneo. [16]. P. neriifolius is the most widly-spread species of the genus, occurring from Nepal, India, Burma, Indochina, Thailand throughout Malesia, Philippines, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon and Fidji Islands, northern Queensland/Australia [16,25]. It occurs in montane mixed conifer forests [8,16]. Podocarpus comprises about 95 species thoughout the tropics, often in the highlands of subtropical Himalaya foothills to temperate forests of the southern

hemisphere. P. neriifolius occurs in montane forests, with scattered occurrence, occasionally in pure stands; locally associated with Dacrycarpus imbricatus and Altingia noronhae; in New Britain it occurs in the hills with Pometia and Calophyllum, in the montane forest in New Ireland with Fagaceae, Eugenia and Schizomeria; in the Morobe District (New Guinea) it is associated with Anisoptera and Flindersia in the canopy" [25]. In Laos, Xiengkhuang Province, P. neriifolius grows scattered in moist evergreen mountain forest often together with evergreen oaks (Quercus spp.)and in swamp forest [7].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : P. neriifolius grows to large size in the mountain forests of northern India and Nepal with a subtropical to near-temperate hill climate. Its optimum is between 900 and 1500 m a.s.l., with 1500-3700 mm/ m² mean annual precipitation, and uniformly distributed summer rain and up to 5 months of dry season. The temperature range is 25ºC to 30ºC with the coldest months having only between 8ºC and 24ºC [12]. Generally it is found on rocky hill tops; also near rivers, from sea level to 2,100 m [16]. Appears as understory tree but may also grow into the canopy. Widespread but uncommon in less-disturbed evergreen forests, at 1000 m-1400 m elevation [5]. Found at elevations from 400-1500 m, usually mixed with Castanopsis spp., Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Fokienia hodginsii, Lithocarpus spp., and Pometia sp. [8] Shade- tolerant. Occasionally P. neriifolius regenerates from seed under dense forest cover [2,8].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers fertile, humid and humus-rich soil; on sandstone or latosols, (Java), or on ultrabasic soils; a shade tolerant tree. Found on limestone in Sarawak, but also in swamps; on sandstone ridges, on andesit,or laterites which is the common latosol in Java, and on sandy clay. In New Guinea it is reported on ultra-basic soil [24ften together with evergree oaks (Quercus spp.)]..

N. Utilization and importance : P. neriifolius is the most wide-spread species of the genus and is the main source of podocarp timber. [Wood]:Used for furniture and cabinet work; [Non-Wood]: The fruit is edible; also planted in gardens as ornamental tree[2]. A decoction of the leaves has been used against rheumatism and arthritis; juice from the leaves is prepared as remedy against maggot infested sores in Papua New Guinea (PNG).[16]

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class [4], not included in the official classification of Forestry Administration(2003) [18].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

not determined

4

P. Silviculture and management : Natural regeneration is sparse on acid heath soils, although P. neriifolius produces seeds regularly [2.

Q. Propagation : Podocarpus can be propagated by seed; there are about 4500 dry seeds of P. polystachyus in 1 kg. P. neriifolius seed germinated with 90% within 20-67 days. Seed may not be viable after more than 3 months of storage. Seedlings are transplaned to the field when 30-40 cm high; spacing is usually 4 m x 5 m. Pollination is by wind, seed dispersal by birds and fruit-eating bats, seedlings are found widely scattered [16]. Because of the scarcity of the species in mountains of Laos there is no knowledge about seed collection, but seed collection might be possible during the rainy season. Digging out wildlings might also be feasible [7].

R. Hazards and protection : An endangered species in Vietnam [2]

S. Conservation :

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Native in mainland Asia, Nepal, India; most likely introduced in the other locations, Pacific Islands, Solomon Islands and Fiji.[16]

5

V. Miscellaneous4 : W. Further readings5 : Anon, 1987. Brown pine. Timber Species - Queensland Department of Forestry, No. 2:2 pp. Bolza E, Kloot NH, 1972. The mechanical properties of 56 Fijian timbers. Division of Forest Products Technological Paper, CSIRO, No. 62:51pp.; 13 ref. Dagar JC, Dagar HS, 1987. Ethnobotanical and other uses of some gymnosperms found in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 9(1):201-204; 11 ref. Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, 1995. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers., 655 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. PROSEA NUGI 835.]; 747 ref. Troup RS, 1921. The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol. III. Oxford, UK; Clarendon Press. Whitmore TC, 1973. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. Volume 2. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. Volume 2., vii + 444 pp. + 1 map; Malayan Forest Records No. 26. Many ref.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

7) Lehmann, L., Grejmans, M. and Shenman, D., 2003: Forest Trees of the Central Highlands of Xieng Khouang, Lao P.D.R. – A field guide. DANIDA-DED-NAWACOP, Vientiane-Laos. 246 pp.

8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands,

16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD).

24) Gymnosperm Database: http://3w.geocities.com /RainForest/Canopy/2285/po/po/ 3w.issg.org/databas neriifolius.htm (Internet source).

27)

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Psidium guajava L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Psidium guajava L.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Psidium guajava L. [5]

³

apple guava, guava, round guava, tropical guava [11], lemon guava [9]

C. Synonym

³

Guajava pyrifera (L.) Kuntze [5], Guajava pyriformis Gaertn. [5], Psidium aromaticum L. [5], Psidium guayava Raddi [5], Psidium pomiferum L. [5], Psidium pyriferum L. [5], Psidium sapidissimum Jacq. [5], Myrtus guajava var. pyrifera (L.) Kuntze [9], Myrtus guajava (L.) Kuntze [9], Psidium cujavillus Burm. f. [9], Psidium guajava var. cujavillum (Burman) Krug and Urb. [9], Psidium guajava var. guajava [9], Psidium guava Griseb. [9], Psidium igatemyensis Barb. Rodr. [9], Psidium pumilum var. guadalupense [9], Psidium pumilum Vahl. [9]

D. Other1

³

amarood, jamphal, jamrukh, sapari (India) [9] - araca, goiaba

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Brazil) [9]- banjiro (Japan) [9] - bayabas, bayawas, guyabas

1

(Philippines) [9] - biyabas, jambu batu (Brunei Darussalam) [9] - djambu, farang, ma-kuai, ma-man (Thailand) [9] goaibeira, goiaba, goiabeiro (Portugal) [9] - Goavier, Goeajaaba, Guyaaba (Netherlands) [9] - gouyave, goyave, goyavier (France) [9] - Guavenbaum, Guayave, Guave (Germany) [9] - guayaba, guayaba silvestre, guayabilla, guayabo, guayavo, guyava (Spain, Latin America) [9] guwafah (Arabia) [9] - jambu batu, jambu berase, jambu biji, jambu kampuchia (Malaysia) [9] - jambu biji, jambu klutuk (Indonesia) [9] - koejawal (South Africa) [9] - oi (Vietnam) [9] - si da (Laos) [9]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

RtEbk Source: [1]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ trâ bék [1], tokal, trapaek sruk [9] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Myrtales Family: Myrtaceae Genus: Psidium Species: Psidium guajava L. Sup-species: Psidium guajava var. cujavillum (Burman) Krug and Urb. / Psidium guajava var. guajava

Source :[ 3,9]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Psidium guajava is a large evergreen shrub, or small tree, generally 3-10 m [5] high (9-12 m [10]). The stem is crooked and attains a DBH of 25 cm [6]. The plant branches close to the ground

downy. The root system is generally superficial and very extensive, frequently extending well beyond the canopy with some deep roots but no distinct taproot. [Bark]: The guava is easy to recognize because of its smooth, thin, mottled green or copper-colored bark that flakes off, showing the greenish layer beneath. [Leaves]: The stiff but leathery leaves are opposite, simple, have pronounced veins, and are slightly downy on the underside, somewhat irregular in outline. They are yellow-green to dull-green or greyish green above and slightly downy below with dotted glands. Leaves are 7-15 cm x 3-5 cm [6] in size (515 x 4-6 cm [5]), oblong to elliptical, with an entire margin, conspicuous parallel veins and a 3-10 mm long [5] leafstalk. The tip is blunt and the base rounded to wedge shaped. Crushed leaves are aromatic. Stipules are absent. [Flowers]: The inflorescence is axillary, consisting of 1-3 [5] flowers, with about 2 cm long [5] flowerstalks and two bracts. The calyx is splitting irregularly into 2-4 lobes [5], whitish and sparsely hairy within. The 4-5 inner flower-leaves are white, linear egg-shaped and approximately 2 cm long [5]. Each flower contains a prominent tuft of about 250 [6] white stamens (=male organs) with pale white filaments, about 12 mm long [5], erect or spreading, anther pale yellow. The ovary (=female

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

and often produces suckers from roots near the base of the trunk. Young twigs are quadrangular and

2

organ) is inferior with numerous ovules, a about 10 cm long [5] style and a green stigma. "In India for instance, the blossoms occur in May and June" [5]. [Fruit]: The fruit (=berry), exuding a strong, sweet, musty odor when ripe, may be round, ovoid, or pear-shaped, 5-10 cm [6] long (4-12 cm [5]) with 4 or 5 protruding outer flower-leaves (=sepals) at the apex. They are green until a very short time before ripening, hard and gummy within and very astringent but turn yellow when ripe sometimes flushed with red, frequently blushed with pink. Next to the thin skin is a layer of somewhat granular flesh, 3-12 mm thick [6], white, yellowish, light- or darkpink, or near-red, juicy, acid, subacid, or sweet and flavorful. One fruit is weighing up to 500 g [5]. The mesocarp is fleshy, thick, edible, the soft pulp enveloping 112 to 535 [6], very hard cream to brown, kidney-shaped or flattened seeds. Seeds are yellowish, 3 mm long [6]. [2, 3, 5, 6, 10]

I. Wood properties: The sapwood is light brown, the heartwood brown or reddish, hard, moderately strong and durable. [5]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 25°N to 24°S [3]. P. guajava is indigenous to the American tropics, and is now naturalized throughout the tropics and subtropics. It appears to have evolved in relatively open areas, such as savanna-shrub transitional zones, or in frequently disturbed areas where it is a strong competitor in early secondary growth. "In some areas it is found in large thickets with as many as 100 plants in an area of less than half a hectare, although it is more often found in densities of 1-5 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

plants/ha. Thus, Psidium guajava is considered a noxious weed in many of this tropical pasture lands.

3

When chemical control is not available, guava proliferation may result in the abandonment of a pasture" [5]. "It is grown in orchards or incorporated into agroforestry systems in India, and is widely planted (or has spread) in Africa" [3]. [3, 5]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Generally, guava grows in an altitude of 0-1,500 m a.s.l [3] where it still develops fruits, but can survive up to 2,000 m [5] (0-2,740 m [9]). "In India, it flourishes up to an altitude of 1,000 m, in Jamaica to 1,200 m, in Costa Rica to 1,400 m and in Ecuador to 2,300 m" [6]. The species is very hardy and adapts to a wide range of growing conditions. It thrives in both humid and dry climates but requires an annual rainfall between 1,000-2,000 mm [5, 6, 7] (1,000-3,000 mm [3]). It is more droughtresistant than most tropical fruit crops, but also an annual rainfall to 5,000 mm/year [9] is tolerated. For maximum production in the tropics, however it requires a more or less evenly distributed rainfall over the year. If the fruits ripen during a very wet period they lose flavor and may split. It can also stand a wide range of temperatures: The highest yields are recorded at mean temperatures of 2328ºC [5]. Generally a range of 15-45ºC [5] is suitable (13-26ºC [3]). In the subtropics, trees withstand light frost and 3.5-6 months [5] of mean temperatures above 16ºC [5], depending on the cultivar.

"Young trees have been damaged or killed in cold spells at Allahabad, India, in California and in Florida. Older trees, killed to the ground, have sent up new shoots which fruited 2 years later" [7]. [3, 5, 6, 7, 9]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : A wide range of soil types are suitable for cultivation of this species. The guava thrives equally well on heavy clay, marl, light sand, gravel bars near streams, or on limestone, however growth and production are best on rich clay loams. Good drainage is recommended but guavas are seen growing spontaneously on land with a high water table, too wet for most other fruit trees. It tolerates a pH range from 4.5 to 9.4 [6] including slightly to strongly acid soils and is moderate salt-resistant. [5, 6]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood makes an excellent firewood and charcoal because of its abundance, natural propagation, and classification as an undesirable weed. It is also used for sawn or hewn building timbers, tool handles, light construction, industrial and domestic woodware, fence posts and in carpentry and turnery.

[Non-wood]: Food: The whole fruit is edible. There are different flavor varieties from very acid to sweet with the best fruit being both sweet and mildly acid. Table varieties with good taste, large size and high pulp to seed ratio, have been developed for the fresh fruit market in many countries. Other varieties have been developed for the industrial purposes and the following wide variety of products are available: canned fruit or mesocarps in sweet syrup, puree, goiabada (a type of thick, sweet jam), jams and jellies, juices and nectars, ice cream and yoghurts. Guava paste, or guava cheese as known in the West Indies, is made by evaporating the pulp with sugar. It is eaten as a sweetmeat. "A firm in the Philippines dehydrates slices of the outer, non-seeded part of the fruit to make a similar product. In some Asian countries such as Indonesia, the leaves are used in cooking" [5]. Also winemaking from the fruit has been commercialized in southern parts of Africa. The plant contains an essential oil in the leaves which contains methylchavicol, persein and d-pinene (a paraffin). Medicine: "All parts of the young fruit are astringent. Guava exhibits antibacterial action against intestinal pathogens such as Staphyloccocus. The dried ripe fruits are recommended as a remedy for dysentery, while the leaves and fruits are used as a cure for diarrhea. Oil contains bisabolene and flavinoides that exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. A decoction of the leaves or bark is taken externally as a lotion for skin complaints, ringworm, wounds, and ulcers. Water from soaking the fruit

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3, 5]

4

is good to treat diabetes. The leaves are made into a cataplasm; cooked, they are given to horses with strangle. Some suggested treatments are digestive tract ailments, cold, and high blood pressure: leaf decoction or fruit juice with salt or sugar taken orally. Trauma, pain, headache, and rheumatism: hot leaf decoction compress. Sore throat, hoarse throat: leaf decoction, gargle. Varix, ulcer: leaf decoction, treated with warm water, bath. Hepatitis, gonorrhoea, and diarrhea: clear fruit juice" [5]. The leaves and bark may also be used for dyeing and tanning. P. guajava even has insecticidal properties. The white fragrant flowers secrete nectar in excess all day attracting bees, which also collect juice from the damaged fruits. [5] [Others]: Psidium guajava is widely cultivated as an ornamental fruit tree and shade tree or shrub. In agroforestry it has been used to stake yams (Dioscorea spp.). The small tree is cut back and used to support them. Yield increases of 33-85% [5] have been recorded in Nigeria. It also performes very well when intercropped with fodder crops such as maize, sorghum and cowpeas. It also has been identified as a useful bio-indicator and a bio-accumulator in India. It is sensitive to sulphur dioxide and to injury based on chlorophyll destruction. [2, 5]

O. Cambodian wood classification :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

No class. [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: P. guajava grows in relatively open areas, such as savanna/shrub transitional zones, or in frequently disturbed areas where it is a strong competitor in early secondary growth. "In some areas it is found in large thickets with as many as 100 plants in an area of less than half a hectare, although it is more often found in densities of 1-5 plants/ha. Psidium guajava is considered a noxious weed in many tropical pasture lands. When chemical control is not available, guava proliferation may result in the abandonment of a pasture" [5]. However, P. guajava is an ideal home garden fruit tree due to its hardiness, high yield, long supply season and high nutritive value. [Establishment]: For intensively managed orchards in Thailand trees are spaced only 4 x 4-6 x 6 m [5] apart but seedlings for fruit processing may be spaced up to 10 x 8 m [5] apart. [Management]: "Irrigation during the dry season and frequent light pruning to promote the emergence of flowering shoots are employed for continuity of production throughout the year. When the crop is cycled most fertilizer is applied as a basal dressing at the end of the harvest, if necessary supplemented by a top dressing; if trees are cropped continuously, fertilizers are applied in several small doses. Growth rate is excellent and the plants coppice readily. Branching is extensive and pruning is necessary to form good orchard trees. Firewood cuttings cause excessive propagation by formulation of sprouts and suckers. Best time of day to harvest is early morning because by noon fruit is warmer and deteriorates more rapidly. During harvesting, great care is necessary to avoid fruit

5

damage, as when collected almost ripe, they will only store for about 2-3 days at room temperature. Fruit for industrial purposes do not need such care but greater speed is still essential. Average yields are between 30-40 kg/plant in 5 year-old plants and will reach a maximum production of 50-70 kg at about 7 years if well managed" [5]. [Agroforestry]: Psidium guajava is grown in orchards or incorporated into agroforestry systems in India, and is widely planted (or has spread) in Africa. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental fruit tree and shade tree or shrub. In agroforestry it has been used to stake yams (Dioscorea spp.). The small tree is cut back and used to support them. Yield increases of 33-85% [5] have been recorded in Nigeria. It also performes very well when intercropped with fodder crops such as maize, sorghum and cowpeas. Tree growth reduction is very small. [2, 3, 5]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: Seed storage behavior is orthodox. Seeds at a moisture content of 6% survive for 24 hours in liquid nitrogen. No loss in viability for the following 66 months in a hermetic storage at -20ºC with 5.5% mc has been reported. [5] [Propagation]: "Guavas grown for processing may be propagated by seed; about 70% of seedlings retain the general characteristics of the parent tree. One fruit will supply over 50 seeds, which should produce at least 25 good quality seedlings. Seed can be sown in beds, pots or directly in the field at a depth of 1 cm; germination occurs within 15-20 days. They should be planted out when about 25 cm

fresh fruit they are clonally propagated. In south-east Asia this is usually done through air-layering, but for larger numbers, shield or patch budding onto seedling rootstocks is recommended. Success depends on vigorous growth of both mother tree and rootstock. Budwood should be mature (bark no longer green) and the leaves are cut 2 weeks before budding to allow the buds to swell. Budding is best done as soon as the rootstock is thick enough to take the bud; on old stocks the buds do not sprout readily. Trees are ready for field planting after 4-5 months. Other propagation methods for example using cuttings or grafting, can also be employed. Plants should be about 1 m tall for grafting. Micro-propagation using nodal explants from mother trees has been reported from India with 70% success in transplantation" [5].

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Insect pests are numerous and in some cases severe. In India alone, the tree is attacked by 80 [7] insect species, including 3 bark-eating caterpillars (Indarbella spp.) and the guava scale, but this and other scale insects are generally kept under control by their natural enemies. Aphids (Aphis spp.) feed on young growth, causing the curling of leaves. Selenothirps rubrocinctus, the red-banded thirp; adult and larval forms puncture leaves of the infested tree and brownish stains appear. Heavily infested trees are sometimes completely defoliated. Guava trees are seriously damaged by the citrus

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

high. The seedling grows very rapidly, producing fruit in 2-3 years on good soils. When grown for their

flat mite, Brevipalpus californicus in Egypt. A false spider mite, Brevipalpus phoenicis, causes surface

6

russeting beginning when the fruits are half-grown. The green scale (Coccus viridis) occurs on branches. The green shield scale, Pulvinaria psidii, requires chemical measures in Florida, as does the guava white fly, Trialeurodes floridensis, and a weevil, Anthonomus irroratus, which bores holes in the newly forming fruits. Fruit russeting and defoliation result also from infestations of red-banded thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus. In India, cockchafer beetles feed on the leaves at the end of the rainy season and their grubs, hatched in the soil, attack the roots. The larvae of the guava shoot borer penetrate the tender twigs, killing the shoots. Sometimes aphids are prevalent, sucking the sap from the underside of the leaves of new shoots and excreting honeydew on which sooty mold develops. The guava fruit worm, Argyresthia eugeniella, invisibly infiltrates hard green fruits, and the citron plant bug, Theognis gonagia, the yellow beetle, Costalimaita ferruginea, and the fruit-sucking bug, Helopeltis antonii, feed on ripe fruits. The coconut mealybug, Pseudococcus nipae, has been a serious problem in Puerto Rico but has been effectively combated by the introduction of its parasitic enemy, Pseudaphycus utilis. Soil-inhabiting white grubs require plowing-in of an approved and effective pesticide during field preparation in Puerto Rico. There are other minor pests, but the great problems wherever the guava is grown are fruit flies. The guava is a prime host of the Mediterranean, Oriental, Mexican, and Caribbean fruit flies, and the melon fly–Ceratitis capitata, Dacus dorsalis, Anastrepha ludens, A. suspensa, and Dacus cucurbitae. Fruit fly maggots such as Anastrepha striata, Dacus spp. and Ceratitis spp. are especially troublesome. Ripe fruits will be found infested with the larvae and totally unusable except as feed for cattle and swine. To avoid fruit fly damage, fruits must be picked before full maturity and this requires harvesting at least 3 times a week. In Brazil, choice, undamaged guavas are produced by covering the fruits with paper sacks when young (the size of an

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

olive). Infested fruits should be burned or otherwise destroyed. In recent years, the Cooperative

7

Extension Service in Dade County, Florida, has distributed wasps that attack the larvae and pupae of the Caribbean fruit fly and have somewhat reduced the menace. "In Bahia, Brazil, severe deficiency symptoms of guava trees was attributed to nematodes and nematicide treatment of the soil in a circle 3 ft (0.9 in) out from the base restored the trees to normal in 5 months" [7]. [5, 7] [Diseases]: In Brazil yellow rust (Puccina psidii) is an extremely serious fungal pest, as are leaf spot (Phyllosticha guajayae) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) which may attack the fruits in the rainy season. Fruit rot (Glomerella cingulata) shrivels green fruit and rots ripe fruit. In Puerto Rico, up to 50% [7] of the guava crop (mainly from wild trees) may be ruined by this uncontrollable fungus, which mummifies and blackens immature fruits and rots mature fruits. "Mushroom root rot (Clitocybe tabescens) can eventually kill the tree. Fruits punctured by insects are subject to mucor rot (caused by the fungus, Mucor hiemalis) in Hawaii. On some trees, 80% of the mature green fruits may be ruined. Diplodia natalensis may similarly affect 40% of the crop on some trees in South India" [7]. Algal spotting of leaves and fruits (caused by Cephaleuros virescens) occurs in some cultivars in humid southern Florida but can be controlled with copper fungicides. During the rainy season in India, and the Province of Sancti Spiritus, Cuba, the fungus, Phytophthora parasitica, is responsible for much infectious fruit rot. Botryodiplodia sp. and Dothiorella sp. cause stem-end rot in fruits damaged during harvesting. Macrophomina sp. has been linked to fruit rot in Venezuela and Gliocladium

roseum has been identified on rotting fruits on the market in India. Wilt, associated with the fungi Fusarium solani and Macrophomina phaseoli, brings about gradual decline and death of undernourished 1-to 5-year-old guava trees in West Bengal. A wilt disease brought about by the wound parasite, Myxosporium psidii, causes the death of many guava trees, especially in summer, throughout Taiwan. Wilt is also caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. psidii which invades the trunk and roots through tunnels bored by the larvae of Coelosterna beetles. Pestalotia psidii sometimes causes canker on green guavas in India and rots fruits in storage. [5, 7] [Others]: Zinc deficiency may be conspicuous when the guava is grown on light soils. It is corrected by two summer sprayings 60 days apart [7] with zinc sulphate. In some Pacific Islands, as well as in Central American countries such as Costa Rica, P. guajava is an important weed in pastures, where it is difficult to eradicate and leads to land degradation. [3, 7]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Colombia, Mexico, Peru, United States of America. [5] Introduced: Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, China, Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Greece, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Israel, Kenya, Laos, Malawi, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Samoa, Senegal, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda, Venezuela, Vietnam. [5]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: The genus name is derived from the Greek word 'psidion' (=pomegranate), due to a fancied resemblance between the two fruits. [5] [Chemical properties]: "Guava is rich in tannins, phenols, triterpenes, flavonoids, essential oils, saponins, carotenoids, lectins, vitamins, fiber and fatty acids. Guava fruit is higher in vitamin C than

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[World Distribution]

8

citrus with 80 mg of vitamin C in 100 g of fruit (10-2,000 mg/100 g of fruit [5]) and contains appreciable amounts of vitamin A as well. Guava fruits are also a good source of pectin - a dietary fiber. The leaves of guava are rich in flavonoids, in particular, quercetin. Much of guava's therapeutic activity is attributed to these flavonoids. The flavonoids have demonstrated antibacterial activity. Quercetin is thought to contribute to the anti-diarrhea effect of guava; it is able to relax intestinal smooth muscle and inhibit bowel contractions. In addition, other flavonoids and triterpenes in guava leaves show antispasmodic activity. Guava also has antioxidant properties which is attributed to the polyphenols found in the leaves" [8]. The pectin content increases during ripening and declines rapidly in over-ripe fruit" [5].

W. Further readings5 : Akunda EW, Oduol PA, 1989. Growth rates of some promising agroforestry tree species. Trees for development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a regional seminar held by the International Foundation for Science (IFS), ICRAF House, Nairobi, Kenya, February 20-25, 1989., 66-70; 10 ref. [3]

Amin MN, Jaiswal VS, 1988. Micropropagation as an aid to rapid cloning of a guava cultivar. Scientia Horticulturae, 36(1-2):89-95; 20 ref. [3]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Bajaj YPS, 1996. Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry 35. Trees IV. Biotechnology in agriculture

9

and forestry 35. Trees IV., xix + 427 pp.; [ref. at ends of chapters]. [3]

Beer J, 1979. Traditional agroforestry practices in the wet tropics; the 'La Suiza' case study. Activities at Turrialba, 7(3):2-5; [1 pl.]. [3]

Bose TK, Mitra SK, eds, 1996. Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash. [3]

Chauhan DS, Dhyani SK, 1989. Traditional agroforestry practices in north-east Himalayan region of India. Indian Journal of Dryland Agricultural Research and Development, 4(2):73-81; 5 ref. [3]

Dadhwal KS, Sharma NK, Saroj PL, 1995. Diagnosis and possible interventions in designing agroforestry systems in north-western plains of Uttar Pradesh - a case study. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 23(1):47-53; 4 ref. [3]

Duggan KJ, Henderson L, 1981. Progress with a survey of exotic woody plant invaders of the Transvaal. Proceedings of the fourth National Weeds Conference of South Africa., 7-20; 1 ref. [3]

Morton J. (1987) Fruits of warm climates - guava (Psidium guajava). [6]

Nilsson PO, 1995. Agroforestry in Cabo Delgado Mozambique: a study of farmers' experience and knowledge of growing trees. Recommendations for extension work in Cabo Delgado. Working Paper International Rural Development Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, No. 295:v + 74 pp.; [ISRN SLU-IRDC-WP-295-SE]; 12 ref.

Partridge IJ, 1973. Chemical control of guava. Fiji Agricultural Journal, 35(2):101-102. [3]

Pathak RK, Ojha CM, 1993. Genetic resources of guava. Advances in horticulture: fruit crops Volume 1., 143-147; 22 ref. [3]

Pleines T, 1993. Agroforestry systems and peasant farming practices for erosion control in the Antananarivo region. Akon'ny Ala, No. 11:10-14; 11 ref. [3]

Raturi GB, Hiwale SS, 1993. Horti-silvi-pastoral system for increased productivity of marginal and degraded lands under rainfed conditions. Advances in Horticulture and Forestry, 3:179-186; 3 ref. [3]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3]

10

Roxas CA, Florido HB, Saplan J, Rondina R, Dimaculangan R, 1991. Drought resistant species. RISE - Research Information Series on Ecosystems 3(2). [3]

Saroj PL, Arora YK, 1994. Horticulture based agroforestry systems of Doon Valley. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 22(3):60-65; 12 ref. [3]

Somarriba E, 1995. Guayaba (Psidium guajava) in pastures: establishment of live fences and rehabilitation of degraded pastures. Agroforestería en las Américas, 2(6):27-29; 6 ref. [3]

Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), Beer J(Beer JW), 1985. Guava trees (Psidium guajava) in pastures. III. Fuelwood production. Turrialba, 35(4):333-338; 18 ref. [3]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1982. Guava (Psidium guajava L.) growing in pastures: methods of

11

volume measurement and potential for wood production. Guayabo (Psidium guajava L.) asociado con pastos: métodos de análisis volumétrico y potencial de producción de lena., iv + 33 pp.; 20 ref. [3]

Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1985. Guava trees (Psidium guajava) in pastures. II. Fruit consumption and seed dispersal. Turrialba, 35(4):329-332; 9 ref. [3]

Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1985. Guava trees (Psidium guajava) in pastures. I. Fruit production and seed dispersal. Turrialba, 35(3):289-295; 31 ref. [3]

Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1986. Effects of livestock on seed germination of guava (Psidium guajava L.). Agroforestry Systems, 4(3):233-238; 21 ref.

[3]

Subramanyam MD, Iyer CPA, 1993. Improvement of guava. Advances in horticulture: fruit crops Volume 1., 337-347; 56 ref. [3]

Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts., 446 pp.; [and fig.]; many ref. [3, 6] Zemede A, Ayele N, 1995. Home-gardens in Ethiopia: characteristics and plant diversity. Sinet, an Ethiopian Journal of Science, 18(2):235-266; 23 ref. [3]

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations. [2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [3] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[5] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source) [6] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source) [7] Morton, J. 1987. Guava. p. 356–363. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL. Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University [8] Raintree Nutrition, 1996 .Tropical Plant Database. Database for GUAVA, Inc., Carson City, NV 89701.(Psidium guajava). http://www.rain-tree.com/guava.htm (Internet source) [9] Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), April 2006. Complied by: Scott Henderson, Charles Darwin Research Station, Galapagos Islands http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=211&fr=1&sts= (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[4] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

12

[10] Dave's Garden 2000-2006. PlantFiles: Detailed information on Guava, Tropical Guava Psidium guajava http://davesgarden.com/pf/go/2088/ (Internet source) [11] Snow Barlow, 2004. MULTILINGUAL MULTISCRIPT PLANT NAME DATABASE. The University of Melbourne.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Psidium.html (Internet source)

13

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Punica granatum L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Punica granatum L.] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Punica granatum L. [4]

B. English name (s)

³

Pomegranate

C. Synonym

³

Punica nana L. [20] P.sempervirens, spp. [9]

D. Other1

³

totum (Cambodia); delima (Indonesia, Malaysia); phiilaa (Laos); salebin, talebin, thale (Burma); granada (Philippines); thapthim (Thailand-Central); pila (Thailand-Northeast); bako (Thailand-North); lu´u, thap lu´u (Vietnam); grenadier (French); granada (Spanish) [1,6].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

TTwm Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ totim [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Kingdom: Viridiplantae

1

Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Myrtales Family: Punicaceae Gunus: Punica Species: Punica granatum L. [4] Source :[4 ; 11 ;17]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A sometimes spiny, xerophytic shrub or small tree, up to 6 m high under favourable conditions [1]. Appreciated for its fruit, flowers and medicinal qualities [9]. Trunk generally absent or very short, rarely exceeding 10 cm diameter; generally multi-stemmed, sometimes with spines.

Branches slender [1]. A cultivated shrub, 3-4 m high [4]; a deciduus shrub or small tree, up to 6-10 m high. Often richly branching from the base, each branch ending in a spine; often spines grow out of leaf corners [6]. [Leaves]: Opposite, entire, elliptic or oblong, relatively small, shortly petiolate, limb thick, coriaceous, shining; veins more or less reddish [1]. Leaves mostly opposite, sometimes sub-opposite or clustered, oblong-lanceolate, 1-9 cm long and 0.5-2.5 cm wide, with acute or obtuse base, entire margin and obtuse or emarginate tip [6]. [Flowers]: Solitary or grouped in an inflorescence of up to 5 flowers, campanulate, red-scarlet coloured. Calyx formed by 5-7 red, yellow or white, obovate sepals. Stamens very numerous. The ovary contains 3-7 radiating loculi, each with numerous ovules [1]. Flowers 1-5 together at tip of twigs, waxy, 4-5 cm long and wide with red to white petals [6]. [Fruit]: A berry about the size of a large apple, with thick, coriaceous skin, crowned by the persistent calyx. The more or less angular seeds are embedded in a reddish juicy coating of a sweet-acid taste, [1]. Fruits 6-12 cm in diameter, very variable in colour, with leathery skin. The interior of the fruit is separated by membranous walls and white spongy tissue into compartments packed with numerous small transparent sacks, basically the outer seed coat or saercotestum [19] filled with juicy pulp and seed [6].These small sacks or arils represent the edible part of fruit [9}.

Numerous seeds in

compartments are covered by a fleshy, jelly-like, sweet to acid tasting seed shell formed into an angular blocklet , representing the edible part of the fruit [13].

I. Wood properties: implements. It is predominantly used as fuel [1,30].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Probably a native of Persia, (Iran) and Afghanistan, but extending into northern India. A plant cultivated in Arab countries of the Near East for over 4000 years. It was introduced to the South of Europe, the eastern Mediterranean countries, North Africa, and China. Now it has been wide-spread to the warmer regions, particularly the subtropics, but it remains a hardy, low demanding species of dry shrublands from Iran to India [1,4,9].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A species of hot continental climates, with hot, dry summers and fairly pronounced winters. Tolerant of of climatic and edaphic conditions. Where there is no dry season it will remain evergreen, otherwise deciduous where there is a winter season. Punica can be cultivated from sea level up to 1800 m.[1] It is a tough small tree, drought resistant, salt tolerant, which makes it suitable for cultivation in irrigated areas with soil salinization problems [13].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

The wood has usually only small dimensions, suitable for domestic wood ware, handles and small

2

M. soil and site conditions : Punica will grow on most soils even those not supporting any other fruit-bearing species;.

N. Utilization and importance : Punica granatum is an old cultivated plant of cultural, mystical significance, described in historical documents of the Near East over 2000 years ago. This is partly due to the fact that this species survives under very hard conditons, adaptapts to various climatic and edaphic conditions producing beautiful flowers and a variably usable fruit. [Wood]: The wood of the short stemps never reaches more than small dimensions, but in a region permanently short of wood. Hence it is used for making small wood ware, and implement handles, otherwise, as the branches, it is used as firewood.[1] [Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh, or pressed for juice; used in sherbets or drinks, frequently processed to grenadine syrop; which is used for the preparation of refreshing drinks [1]. The bark of the pomegranate tree may be used as a very strong purgative, but it has several serious side-effects. The fresh root bark is used in an anthelmintic preparation, the alkaloid punicine is responsible for this activity. Unripe fruit and flowers are significant emetics. Ripe fruits are laxative and blood enriching also useful in managing sore throat, inflamed eyes, brain diseases and chest troubles [30]. The fruit shell (pericarp) contains up to 30% of tannin [19], which is used for tanning leather, but also used as medicine against diarhoea [4].The bark yields a vermifuge [4]. A hemostatic medication can be prepared from the ashes of dried and burnt flowers. Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

The skin of the fruit yields yellow to red-brown colours extracted for dyeing of oriental tapestry. A

3

black dye for colouring leather can be prepared from the roots [30]. The leaves are browsed by domestic livestock [30].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : Plants are ready for transplanting after 9 months, however, it is common practice to wait with transplanting for one or two years. Depending on the terrain spacing should be between 3 and 6 m, frequent watering is recommended. Young plants will bear 10-20 fruit 4-5 years after outplanting, reaching full production after the 10th year, continuing production for 25 to 30 years. Inter-row cultivation with vegetables is recommended until year 10 or until plants have reached full production. Plants have the tendency to produce numerous suckers, which should be removed when they appear because they are unproductive especially when they result in single-stemmed trees [1].

Q. Propagation : Pomegranate can be cultivated by seed, but this method produces fruit of variable form and quality. Preferred practice is the propagation by cuttings which is easy. The only requirement to be observed is that the wood should be at least 6 months old but not older than 2 years. All leaves should be removed from the cuttings, which are planted in the shade. P. granatum is grown mainly from rooted and hardwood cuttings, direct seeding and air layering. Direct seeding is discouraged because of segregation. Mature stem cuttings of size 20-30 cm are planted for rooting in polybags of 20 x 13 cm with 300 gauge thickness containing a mixture of red soil, sand and well decomposed compost in equal proportions. Farm manure is applied at the rate of 10 kg per seedling. The rooted cuttings are ready for planting after 60 days in pits measuring 60 x 60 x 60 cm dug 3-5 m apart. Irrigation is vital after planting. Trees should be manured annually and trained with a single stem up to 30-45 cm or as a bush with 3 or 4 main stems. The seedlings stay for 12-18 months in the nursery [30].

R. Hazards and protection : It is feared that there is a continuing loss of genetic variability of cultivated stock largely because crop improvement in pomegranate has for centuries depended on the selection of spontaneous seedlings and their clonal propagation. Selection of seedlings from open-pollinated or artificially-pollinated mother trees is more recent.

S. Conservation :

unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : In all warmer regions, especially in Mediterranean climates, subtropical climates

V. Miscellaneous4 : The dried seeds have an application as a condiment called anardana in northern India. Fresh juice is used in marinating and tenderizing meat an effect of the proteolytic enzymes contained in the fruit. The edible part of the fruit contains per 100 g 10% sugar, 36.6 mg vitamin C/100 ml of juice, 2.6% protein, 0.1% phosphorous, 0.4% potassium, 0.03%, 0.1% calcium and 0.13% magnesium [30]. Food value/100g: water 78.0% crude protein 1.6% .

lipids

-

sugar&starch 14.6% cellulose

5.1%

mineral matter 0.7% 65 cals/100g.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

4

W. Further readings5 : Cervelli C, 1994. Effect of thermic treatments and seed manipulation on emergence of dwarf pomegranate (Punica granatum L. 'Nana'). Acta Horticulturae, No. 362:189-195; 4 ref. Chattopadhyay PK, Patra SC, 1993. Effect of various soil covers on yield and quality of pomegranate. Annals of Agricultural Research, 14(3):317-321; 8 ref. Dubey JK, Amith Nath, Thakur JR, 1993. Chemical control of pomegranate fruit borer(s), Virachola isocrates (Fabr.) and Deudorix epijarbas (Moore). Indian Forester, 119(11):928-931; 6 ref. Nawwar MAM, Hussein SAM, Merfort I, 1994. Leaf phenolics of Punica granatum. Phytochemistry, 37(4):1175-1177; 10 ref.

Salunkhe DK, Kadam SS, 1995. Handbook of fruit science and technology. Production, composition, storage, and processing. Handbook of fruit science and technology. Production, composition, storage, and processing., xii + 611 pp.; [ref. at ends of chapters. Food Science and Technology Series No. 70].

Singh J, Kashyap R, 1993. Production technology for dryland fruits of Madhya Pradesh. Advances in Horticulture and Forestry, 3:69-75; 11 ref.

X. References: Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

1)

5

FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6)

Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,

Bangkok, 234 pp. 9)

Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide.

Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp. 11)

Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York;

336 pp. 13)

Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical

Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp. 19)

Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef

Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp. 20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ). 30)

www-ang.kfunigraz.ac.at/˜kratzer/engl/generic_frame.htl?spice_bot.html (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Sandoricum koetjape (Burm f.) Merr]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Sandoricum koetjape (Burm f.) Merr] ³

Sandoricum koetjape (Burm f.) Merr. [4]

B. English name (s)

³

Ketchapi, santol, sentol [4,6,11,17)

C. Synonym

³

Sandoricum indicum Cav., [4]; Sandoricum maingayi Hiern.,

A. Latin name

(s)

Sandoricum nervosum Blume, Sandoricum vidalii Merr., Melia koetjape [6,17,19], Trichilia nervosa Vahi [20].

D. Other1

³

kelampu (Brunei); kecapi, ketuat, sentul (Indonesia-general); kecapi,

sentol

(Malaysia-general);

kelampu

(Malaysia,

Sabah, Sarawak), malasantol, santol (Philippines-general); thitto (Burma); kompeng reach (Cambodia); tong (Laos); katon (Thailand-general); kra thon (Thai-central), sa thon (Thai-insular); s[aa][us]-dan, s[aa][us]-dau, xoan dau, sâú tia (Vietnam); mangoustanier sauvage (French).[2,4,6,17]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

kMBIgraC

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [3]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ bâmpénh riëch, kâm piing riëch[4,6] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Meliaceae-Swietenioideae Gunus: Sandoricum Cav. [17] Species: Sandoricum koetjape(Burm.f.) Merr. [4]

Source :[4 ; 11 ; 17]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Sandoricum comprises 5 species, 4 of which are restricted to western Malesia. The fifth, S. koetjape, is commonly cultivated mainly for its fruit. A large deciduous tree, 20-30 m in height, branchless 7-10 m high, 30-80 cm in diameter. Crown dense, dark green, large buttress at the base [2]. Tree, 20-30 m tall [4]. Semi-evergreen tree up to 25 m high, with dense, narrowly oval crown [5]. A medium-sized, semi-deciduous tree, up to 30 m high and up to 90 cm diameter, with milky latex [6]. Semi-deciduous, small to large trees, up to 45(-50) m tall, bole sometimes straight, but often crooked or fluted, branchless for up to 18(-21) m, up to 75(100) cm in diameter, usually with buttresses up to 3 m high [17,20]. [Bark]: Brown-grey, rugose, inner bark red, 7-8 mm thick. Young branchlets pubescent [2]. Bark pinkish-brown, smooth or peeling in thin rounded flakes, inner bark pink [5]. Bark surface smooth or sometimes flaky or fissured, lenticellate, greyish to pale-pinkish brown, inner bark pale brown or red brown to pink, exuding a milky latex; crown rather compact [17,20]. [Leaves]: Trifoliate-compound, 30-40 cm long. Petiole 20-25 long, petiolule 5-10 mm long. Leaflets coriaceous, entire, large-ovoid, or lanceolate, the 2 lateral leaflets seated at 1/3 of the upper part of the petiole, a little smaller. Size of the leaflets is 15-20 cm by 8-10 cm, base obtuse or round tip, slightly acute. Lateral veins about 10 pairs with a distance of about 8-10 mm [2]. Leaves trifoliate, clustered at the end of twigs, each leaflet 8-18 x 3.5-9.0 cm, broadly ovate, no teeth. Young leaves densely velvety, mature leaves dark green and smooth above, usually softly hairy at least on veins below. Old leaves bright red, turning only a few at a time, like an Elaeocarpus. Side-leaflet stalks very

elliptic to oblong-ovate, pointed at tip, shiny green above, pale green and fine-haired below, top leaflet 6-26 cm x 3-16 cm, side leaflets 4-20 x 2-15 cm, turning red-yellow before leaf fall [6]. Leaves arranged spirally, trifoliate, exstipulate, leaflets entire [17,20]. [Flowers]: Inflorescence racemose, consisting of many 2-3 flowered cymes. Flowers 7-9 mm long, peduncle short and nodose. Sepals connate, tomentose outside, 5-dented, round. Petals 5, twice or trice longer than the calyx, linear, tomentose outside, apex concave. Stamens 10, connate into a tube, anthers sessile, elliptic, tip acute. Disc glabrous, 2-3 mm high. Ovary glabrous, slightly swollen, style cylindrical, stigma 5-dented [2]. Flower 1.0-1.8 cm, yellow or greenish, branched clusters in leaf axils, up to 15 cm long, densely flowered, individual stalks very short, hairy. Calyx with 5 short lobes, densely hairy outside. 5 free-spreading petals, overlapping at base, minutely hairy; cylindrical stamen tube with 10 anthers attached on inside rim opposite minute teeth. Single club-shaped style as long as stamen tube with 5 blunt stigma lobes; ovary covered by fringed disc, ± 1 mm [5]. Flowers numerous, fragrant, yellowish-green, about 1 cm long with cup-shaped, 5-lobed calyx and 5 petals, 1 cm long [6]. Flowers in an axillary thyrse, bisexual, 4-5 merous; calyx truncate to shallowly lobed; petals free; staminal tube cylindrical, carrying 10 anthers; disc tubular; ovary superior, 4-5-locular with 2 ovules in each cell, style head lobed [17,20].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

short, end stalks 2.5-5.0 cm [5]. Leaves alternate, trifoliate, leafstalk up to 18.5 cm long. Leaflets are

2

[Fruit]: A drupe, globose, tomentose, 5-6 cm diameter; many fruits clustered into grapes, dark yellow [2]. Fruit 5-8 cm in size, dirty yellow, globose, not splitting, velvety when young, often wrinkled when mature; thick-skinned, flesh with a milky latex, single large stone densely covered with long, matted hairs; 2-5 seeds each with a translucent jelly-like coating [5]. The fruit is a depressed, globose, finehaired, golden-yellow berry, most varieties 5-6 cm in diameter, weighing 0-100 g. Some cultivars from Thailand up to 7-9 cm weighing 300 . Fruit flesh soft, white, sour to sweet, with 2-5 glossy brown seeds [6]. Fruit a 1-5 locular drupe; pyrenes 1(-2) seeded. Seed large, without aril, surrounded by a translucent or pale, acid, edible pulp of good flavour [20]. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent; hypocotyl elongated; first pair of leaves opposite, trifoliate, subsequent pairs alternate [17]. Flowering in February, fruiting in May [2]. In the Philippines ripe fruit can be found from June to August [6[, to October, in Thailand from May to July [17]. Regenerates rapidly.

I. Wood properties: Heartwood pink-brown, very beautiful, sapwood pink grey, moderately heavy, specific gravity 550kg/m³ [2 ] Sandoricum yields a light- to medium-weight hardwood with specific gravity ranging from 290-590 kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood pale red, yellowish-red or yellow-brown with a pink tinge, indistinct or not distinguishable from the pale white or pinkish sapwood. Grain straight or slightly wavy, texture moderately fine to slightly coarse and even [17,20]. Wood occasionally with fiddleback figure, with characteristic faint odor, especially when fresh. Growth rings mostly indistinct sometimes marked by a narrow marginal parenchyma band; vessels small to medium-sized, solitary and in radial

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

multiples of 2-3. Gum-like deposits sometimes present; parenchyma moderately abundant,

3

paratracheal vasicentric, aliform to confluent, sometimes apotracheal diffuse, occasionally in narrow marginal bands; rays moderately fine, barely visible to the naked eye; ripple marks absent; axial traumatic canals occasionally present [17]. Shrinkage upon seasoning is low to high. The wood seasons well and is not subject to checking and splitting, although material from Sarawak was difficult to dry due to uneven shrinkage with a tendency to collapse. The wood is moderately soft to moderately hard, fairly weak to moderately strong. It is easy to saw and can be planed and finished with good results, occasionally a little furry, it takes a high polish. The wood is non-durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground, fairly durable under cover. The heartwood is resistant, but sapwood can be treated with preservative. The wood is susceptible to marine borer attack and moderately resistant to insect attack. The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetle. The gross energy value of the sapwood is 19,780 kJ/kg [17].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : S. koetjape is native to Indochina and western Malesia, naturalised thoughout tropical Asia, particularly in Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, the whole of the Malesian region, Indonesia and the Philippines [6,17]. Occurs in India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia-Java, Philippines [12]. Sandoricum occurs scattered in primary, sometimes secondary rain

forests, mixed forests, in mountain forests [12], up to 1,200 m elevation. But it has also been found in lowland dipterocarp forest, in heath forest on podsolic soils, in perhumid and seasonal climates [17]. In Vietnam in semi-deciduous and secondary forests, often associated with Dipterocarpus sp., Mesua ferrea, and Tarrietia javanica [2].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A hardy tree, growing from lowland up to 1,000 m elevation. [6] Occurs in perhumid as well as seasonal climates, in primary and secondary rain forests, up to 1200 m elevation a.s.l. S.koetjape has been reported from lowland forest in both perhumid and seasonal climates [17]. Mean annual rainfall should lie in the range of 950-5000 mm/m², preferrably with uniform or a bimodal distribution. The dry season may last from 2 to 5 months, temperatures during the hot season from 32-35ºC., in the cold season from 18-22ºC., but not below 16ºC. S. koetjape tolerates wind and shade [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers well-drained, clay loams or sandy clay loams with plenty of organic matter, mountain soils,limestone soils, volcanic and tropical soils [12]; tolerates podsolic soils. Tolerates prolongued perods of dry season but thrives under more evenly distributed rainfall [6]. Soil texture should be medium to heavy, with free drainage, and an acid to neutral soil reaction; S.koetjape can grow on

N. Utilization and importance : [ Wood]: Sandoricum wood is used for house construction, furniture, cabinet work, joinery, interior construction, shop fitting, panelling, planking and decking of boats, scantlings, carving, butlers chopping blocks, packing cases, household and agricultural implements, for production of veneer, plywood, blockboard, pulp and paper; the wood yields good quality charcoal, it is used as firewood in Indonesia [17]. [Non-Wood]: Fruits ae eaten fresh, processed into jams, jelly, chutneys [6,19]. The fruit is peeled, quartered and cooked in syrup to make delicious preserves [20]. In traditional medicine a decoction of roots and pounded leaves is used to treat diarrhoea [4,17]; powdered bark provides an effective treatment against ringworm, has shown anti-cancer activity, the aromatic roots are used against a variety of afflictions, anti-spasmodic, carminative, stomachic, and as general tonic after child birth. Limonoids isolated from seeds showed insecticidal activity. [6,17, 20]. A bark extract has been used for tanning fishing nets 17,20]. The pounded leaves are sudorific when applied to the skin and are used to make a decoction against diarrhoea and fever. The powdered bark is an effective treatment for ringworms, and contains triterpenes with anti-cancer activity.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

shallow soils and soils rated as infertile [12].

4

[Other]: The fruits are used as fish bait in Sarawak. The fragrant wood is used in perfumery The seeds of S. koetjape contain limonoids (antifeedant compounds) [20]. The tree is important in soil conservation and as shade or shelter tree. It has been fond to be suitable in reclamation because it is hardy and thrives without irrigation in areas with a prolonged dry season. S. koetjape is known to form vesicular arbiscular mycorrhizae which is useful in soil improvement [20]. It is also planted for aesthetic purposes along avenues and in parks. Poles from the tree are used for fencing [20].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included [18]

P. Silviculture and management : Timber plantations have been established in Burma, but management details are not available as a fruit tree planting is done on a small scale in seed orchards in most cases [17]. Stand establishment succeeds best with nursery-raised planting stock [12].

Q. Propagation : Sandoricum can be propagated by seed, however, seed cannot be stored for any length of time. S. koetjape is also propagated by vegetative means like budding, grafting, inarching and marcotting [17,20]. Seed, however has a limited life time. S. koetjape seed with or without the adhering pulp had 90-95% germination in 16-31 days. The frequency of S.koetjape trees over 40 cm dbh in natural forests of Peninsular Malaysia was 2 stems/100 ha (1 sqare kilometer)[17].

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R. Hazards and protection :

5

The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetle attack. The wood is susceptible to marine borer attack and moderately resistant to insect attack [20]. Occurrences and spread of gall-forming mites (Eriophyes sandorici) pose a serious threat to orchards of S. koetjape [1]. The pest causes stunted seedling growth, a reduction in yield and smaller fruit size. Major fungal diseases are Corticium salmonicolor, a gall-forming mite and Phytophthora phaseoli, which can cause blight to nursery plants [12].

S. Conservation :

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : India, Burma, Indochina, Thailand, all of the Malesian region where it originates from, (native) and tropical Australia and nearly all humid tropical countries (introduced).

V. Miscellaneous4 : Little is known on the silviculture of Sandoricum and, as the wood quality is only moderate, it is unlikely that the wood will be increasingly used for sawn timber [17].

W. Further readings5 : Abbate MLE, 1977. Anatomical, physical and working properties of 22 woody species from Thailand. Contributi Scientifico-Pratici per una Migliore Conoscenza ed Utilizzazione del Legno, 21(54):75 pp.; 12 ref. Alonzo DS, Tamolang FN, 1979. Wood properties of Philippine tropical species for wood carving. International Union of Forestry Research Organizations: Wood quality and utilization of tropical species. Proceedings, IUFRO conference held at FORPRIDECOM, College, Laguna, Oct 30-Nov 3, 1978., 62-64. Baltazar CR, 1962. Wax scale on caimito. Plant Indus. Dig, 25(10-12): 6,12. Brown WH, 1954. Useful plants of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin, No. 10. Coronel RE, 1986. Promising fruits of the Philippines. Second edition. Los Baños, Philippines; College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines. De Padua LS, Lugod GC, Pancho JV, 1977. Handbook on Philippine medicinal plants,

Galang FG, 1955. Fruit and nut growing in the Philippines. Malabon, Rizal: AIA printing Press. Heinsleigh TE, Holaway BK, 1988. Agroforestry species for the Philippines. Metro Manila Philippines: US Peace Corps, AJA Printers. Kosela S, Yulizar Y, Chairul, Tori M, Asakawa Y, 1995. Secomultiflorane-type triterpenoid acids from stem bark of Sandoricum koetjape. Phytochemistry, 38(3):691-694; 5 ref. Laxamana NB, 1982. Charcoal production with by-product recovery. Forpride Digest, 11(1/2):47-52; 8 ref. Mabberley DJ, 1997. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants., Ed. 2:xvi + 858 pp. Mandang YI, 1993. Wood anatomy of nine lesser known species of Meliaceae family. Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 11(3):92-100; [English tables and figures.]; 12 ref. Marañon J, 1935. Nutritive mineral value of Philippine food plants (calcium, phosphorus and iron contents). Philippine Journal of Science, 58: 317-358.

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Volume 1. University of the Philippines Technical Bulletin, 11(3).

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Merrill ED, 1912. A Flora of Manila. Manila, Philippines: Bur. Printing. Merrill ED, 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Printing. Miraflores JC, 1915. Adaptability of certain plants to propagation by cutting and marcottage. Philippines Agriculture and Forestry Review, 4(7):142-150. Monsalud MR, Tongacan AL, Lopez FR, Lagrimas MQ, 1966. Edible wildplants in Philippine forests. Philippine Journal of Science, 95(4): 431-561. Pimentel RB, 1980. Floral biology, fruit set and pollen fertility studies on Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Special Problem, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines: Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, U.P. Ramos AH, 1972. Santol (Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr., Meliaceae) In: Cultural directions for Philippine agricutural crops. Volume I. (Fruits). Manila, Philippines; Bureau of Plant Industry; 209-212. Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp. Phengklai C, Niyomdham C, Premrasmi A, Chirathanakorn K, Phuma R, 1989. Peat

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swamp forest of Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany), No. 18:1-42; 8 ref.

7

Pimentel RB, 1980. Floral biology, fruit set and pollen fertility studies on Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Special Problem, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines: Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, U.P. (unpublished). Powell RG, Mikolajczak KL, Zilkowski BW, Mantus EK, Cherry D, Clardy J, 1991. Limonoid antifeedants from seed of Sandoricum koetjape.. Journal of Natural Products, 54(1):241246; 8 ref.

Pratt DS, del Rosario JJ, 1913. Philippine fruits; their composition and characteristics, Philippine Journal of Science, A8:59-80. Purba K, Sumarua E, 1987. Chemical analysis of twenty seven wood species from West Java. Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 4(3):26-29; 12 ref. Ramirez DA, 1961. Note: Cytology of Philippine plants VI. Sandoricum koetjape (Burm. f.) Merr. Philippine Agriculturist, 45:275-278.

Rodrigo PA, 1967. The lanzon and its relatives. Philippine Farms and Gardens, 4:18-21, 23, 25. Stefanov B, Naidenova Ts, 1975. Some tree species from Vietnam having wood valuable for the Bulgarian woodworking industry. Gorsko Stopanstvo, 31(10; 11):39-43; 48-51. Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1981. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Volume III. Delhi, India; Controller of Publications. Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts., 446 pp.; [and fig.]; many ref. Wester PJ, 1911. Tropical fruits in the Visayas. Philip. Agric. Rev., 4(10): 545-554.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen, N.C. et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997 788 pp.

4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

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5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

8

9

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.

³

sesbania [12], agathi, agati sesbania, August flower, Australian corkwood tree, flamingo bill, grandiflora, sesban, swamp pea, tiger tongue, West Indian pea, white dragon tree [7], scarlet wisteria tree [5].

C. Synonym

³

Aeschynomene grandiflora (L.) L. [2], Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv. [2], Robinia grandiflora L. [2, 10], Sesban grandiflorus Poir. [2], Aeschynomene coccinea L.f. [10], Agati coccinea (L.f.) Desv. [10], Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv. Var. coccinea (L.f.) Wight & Arn. [10], Coronilla coccinea (L.f.) Willd. [10], Coronilla grandiflora (L.) Willd. [10], Dolichos arboreus Forsskal

[10],

Emerus grandiflorus (L.)

Kuntze [10],

Resupinaria grandiflora (L.) Raf. [10], Sesban coccinea (L.f.) Poiret [10], Sesbania coccinea (L.f.) Pers. [10]

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D. Other1

1

³

agati, agusta, bagphal, bak, bake (Bangladesh) [2] - pwa valet, pwa valye (Carribbean) [2] - gauai-gauai, katuday, katurai, pan (Philippines) [2] - colbri vegetal, fagotier, fleur papillon, papillon, pois valette, pois vallier, pois valliere (France) [2] - agasti, agati, anari bak, basma, basna, chogache, hatiya (India) [2] - toroy, turi, tuwi (Indonesia) [2] kh’ê: kha:w (Laos) [2] - kacang turi, petai belalang, sesban, sesban getih (Malaysia) [2] - agasti (Nepal) [2] - agathi, agati, peragathi, kathuru, murunga (Sri Lanka) - baculo, cresta de gallo, gallito, paloma, pico de flamenco, zapaton blanco (Spain) [2] - kae-ban, khae, ton kae (Thailand) [2] - so dua (Vietnam) [2]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

GgÁardI Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ ângkiëdèi [2], 'angki:er dey [11]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguminosales / Fables Family: Leguminosae-Papilionoideae Genus: Sesbania Species: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. Source :[ 10]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Sesbania grandiflora is a fast growing evergreen small shrub or medium-sized tree that can grow up to 8-15 m [7] tall (10 m [3], 10-15 m [12], 15 m [2, 9, 6], rarely over 5-6 m [8]). The bole is straight and cylindrical, tall with a DBH of up to 25-30 cm [7]. The crown is rather open with hairy branches. Roots tend to be shallow, with numerous pinkish nodules containing nitrogen-fixing

[Bark]: The bark is grey to light grey, sometimes pink and whitish, soft, corky, thick and deeply cracked. "The inner bark has a slightly bitter taste" [2]. [Leaves]: The leaves are borne on terminal ends of the branches. They are alternate 15-30 cm [2, 3, 7, 8] long, including a 7-15 mm long [9] leafstalk and consist of 12-20 pairs [7] of leaflets (16–30 [3], 20-40 [8], 20-50 [2, 9]). Each leaflet is oblong, rounded and 3-4 cm [7] long (2-3 cm [8], 1.2-4.4 cm [2, 9, 6]) and about 1 cm [7] (0.5-1.5 cm [2, 9, 6]) wide. Before shedding the leaves turn bright yellow. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=short axillary raceme) consists of 2-5 [7] (2–4 [3]) large flowers 5-10 cm long [2, 7] (7-8-9 cm [8]), curved and about 3 cm wide [7] before opening (10.5 x 6 cm [6]). The outer flower-leaves form a calyx which is 2 cm long [2] (1.5-2.2 cm [6]), bell shaped, slightly 2 lobed with 5 shallow teeth. The corolla consists of 5 white, yellowish, rose pink or red fleshy petals, which are stalked at the base, oblong spreading and curved back, with 2 curved wings and 2 united curved inside petals (=inner flower-leaves). Each flower bears 10 curved stamens (=male organs), 9 united and one separate, the pistil has a very narrow stalked ovary and slender style. Flowering commonly occurs between December and February [2], fruiting in April-May [2]. [Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are 20-60 cm x 6-9 mm in size [2] (30-50 cm x 8 mm [6], 25-55 cm [8] long), hanging, flat, with swollen margins containing about 15 to 50 red-brown seeds [2] (15-40 pale-

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bacteria. The tree can also develop floating roots and aerenchyma tissue.

2

colored seeds [7]) which are edible when young. Seeds are beanlike, elliptical, 3.5 mm long [7], each weighting 1 g [7]. [2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The wood is white, soft and rather light with a specific gravity of about 0.42 [3] and a density of 0.512 g/cm³ [3] at unknown mc% (0.50 g/cm³ [7]). Its calorific value is 17.91 MJ/kg [7], with a high ash content of 6% [7] and low 11.7% [7] of carbon. The wood burns quickly and tends to smoke excessively. Thus it is regarded as a low quality fuelwood. However, its fast growth and availability within a year of planting still make it a locally popular fuelwood. The wood should be well dried, as it deteriorates in storage and becomes corky, dusty and unfit for burning. As the density of the wood increases with age, the timber from 5 to 8 year-old trees [7] becomes suitable for house construction or as craft wood. [3, 7]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 20°N to 10°S [2]. "The exact origin of S. grandiflora is not known (India or Indonesia have been suggested), but it is considered native to many Southeast Asian countries. It is widely distributed throughout the tropics, from southern Mexico to South America, and has been planted in southern Florida and Hawaii. It has been cultivated for at least 140 years in West Africa, and more recently in East Africa" [7]. It is commonly seen growing on rice bunds, along roadsides, in home gardens, mixed croplands and other agroforestry systems.

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[2, 7]

3

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : S. grandiflora is a lowland species which occurs up to 800 m a.s.l. in altitude [9] (0-1,000 m [7]). The tree is adapted to a hot humid or semi-arid climate with rainfall conditions of 2,000-4,000 mm/year [2, 7] but will also grow in very dry areas receiving only 800 mm/year [6, 7], (480-2,250 mm [3]) such as on Timor, Indonesia. "It seems to prefer a bimodal rainfall distribution, growing rapidly during the wet season, but is capable of withstanding prolonged dry seasons of up to 9 months [7]" ("It is somewhat drought resistant, although will not survive in very dry conditions unless irrigated. 0-3 dry months are tolerated [2])". A mean annual temperature of 22-30°C [7] is suited best (24.3-26.7°C [3]) but the normal range is 18-30ºC [2] (17-32°C [12]). Cool temperatures of <10°C [6] or even frost are not tolerated. Some sources state that Sesbania grandiflora is wind resistant [2], others describe it as being not wind resistant [7]. For good growth high amounts of light are needed. [2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : The species can be grown on a wide range of soils including shallow soils, saline and alkaline soils. It can be found on light sandy, medium and heavy clayey soil but prefers well-drained, deep, sandy loam soils. When grown in poor soils, nodulation and subsequent nitrogen fixation helps to restore soil fertility, indicating that S. grandiflora has high soil improvement qualities. It has some tolerance to acidic soils down to water pH 4.5 [7, 2]. Normally the pH ranges from 5.5 to 8.5 [12] (6.6-8.5 [3]). Thus, acid, neutral and alkaline soil is possible for growing. "Its tolerance of highly acid, aluminum saturated soils is not known" [7]. S. grandiflora grows best on well drained soils but it also has an outstanding ability to tolerate waterlogging and is ideally suited to seasonally flooded environments. When flooded, the tree initiates floating adventitious roots and protects its stems, roots and nodules with spongy, aerenchyma tissue. Suitable soil types include alfisols, alkaline soils, alluvial soils, vertisols, cambisols, clay soils, grassland soils, gravelly soils, limestone soils, regosols, sandstone soils, silty soils, tropical soils, ultisols, volcanic soils, sandy soils and saline soils. [2, 3, 7, 9, 12]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: S. grandiflora has long been used as a firewood species in Southeast Asia "and has been planted in several areas in Indonesia to provide fuel and other products" [3]. The timber can be used in house construction as a crafts wood and also for poles but may not last long due to rot and insect infestation. The light wood is often used in floating fishing nets. The charcoal is used for gunpowder. Due to its fast growth it is also regarded as a very good pulpwood which can be used as cheap

with a long-fibred bamboo pulp in suitable proportions to give good strength. [3, 7, 12] [Non-wood]: Food: "Leaves, seeds, pods and flowers of S. grandiflora are edible. Flowers are the most widely used part, and white flowers are preferred to the red. In the Philippines, unopened white flowers are a common vegetable, steamed or cooked in soups and stews after the stamen and calyx have been removed. The raw flowers are eaten as salad in Thailand. Young leaves are also eaten, usually chopped fine and steamed, cooked or fried. Tender pods are eaten as string beans" [7]. Fodder: "Leaves and pods are valued for fodder. The tree produces leaves for fodder within 4 months of establishment. The leaves contain 36% crude protein (dry weight) and 9,600 IU vitamin A in every 100 g. For fodder production, the tree is cut when 90-120 cm tall (1.8 kg) and fed to animals in a rice straw diet. This regime showed growth increases comparable with those obtained by feeding formulated diets. The most effective method of feeding the fodder to ruminants is to supplement with it up to 15-30% of the total diet. Because of its high protein content, S. grandiflora should not be solely fed to animals but should be combined with a roughage that is low in protein and high in energy, such as rice or maize straw. Intake of low-quality feed materials can be increased by supplementing them

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

printing, writing, magazine and newsprint paper. The fibers are rather short but can also be blended

4

with S. grandiflora fodder. The fodder can be fed fresh, wilted or dried. The dried fodder can be stored and saved for times of shortage; for example, in Indonesia it provides 70% of the diet of cattle and goats during the dry season. Forage production of 4.5-9.1 kg/ha per year could be expected. S. grandiflora leaves are toxic to chickens and should not be fed to them or other monogastric animals. The fruit is also used as forage" [7]. Medicine: "Crushed leaves are applied to sprains and bruises of all kinds. A tea made from the leaves is believed to have antibiotic, anthelmintic, antitumour and contraceptive properties. The bark is considered as a tonic and an antipyretic, a remedy for gastric troubles, colic with diarrhea and dysentery. A bark decoction is taken orally to treat fever and diabetes. Juice of flowers put in the eyes is said to relieve dimness of vision. The leaves also have medicinal value and are reported to cure night blindness in cattle. In India, all plant parts are reputed to cure night blindness. The root is a wellknown medicine for malaria. Leaves and flowers are used as poultices. The principal medicinal effects are due to the tree’s astringency; hence it is used against inflammation, venom and other poisons, bacterial infections and tumors. Root juices are used for poultices and the leaves are applied for rheumatism, swellings, bruises and itching. For systemic disorders, decoctions are taken internally. Root resin, mixed with honey, is taken orally for phlegm and root juices are taken as an expectorant. Sinus congestion is reduced by taking a flower decoction" [7]. Gum and tannin: "Bark exudate and seed endosperm gums are produced. The clear gum from the bark is used in foods and adhesives as a substitute for gum arabic. The bark yields tannins" [7]. [Others]: S. grandiflora is an ideal species for land reclamation and agroforestry: It has been used to

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

shade nurseries and some crops such as coffee, tea and cocoa, and as a windbreak for citrus,

5

banana and coffee. It can be used as a living fence, as shelterbelt, or as a live support for crops such as vanilla and pepper. Crops continue to grow well when interplanted with S. grandiflora, as its open canopy allows sunlight to pass. The species has an excellent root nodulation and fixes nitrogen, making it a soil improver which is also used for rehabilitating eroded hills. However, nitrogen fixation might me suppressed by nematodes or high acidity of the soil. Also fruits, falling leaflets and flowers make excellent green manure or mulch and improve soil fertility. It is also used as an annual for dense planting, growing for short periods and plowing under to improve soil before planting food crops. S. grandiflora is widely planted for beautification because of its giant showy flowers and long pods. [7]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [11]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: S. grandiflora is a nitrogen-fixing light-demander with extremely fast growth rates. It is commonly seen growing on rice bunds, along roadsides, in home gardens, mixed croplands and other agroforestry systems. Coppicing abilities range from poor to good [12] ("S. grandiflora will coppice and pollard, but it will not survive repeated cutting" [2]).

[Establishment]: Seedlings "can be established in the field in 1 month, planted in holes 20-25 cm at a spacing of about 1.2 x 1.2 m. Seeds can be sown directly into well-worked soil at the beginning of the rainy season. The field is burned to obtain ash and sowing may be done in patches or lines afterwards. Weeding and irrigation accelerate early growth. If fertilizing and irrigation are done at monthly intervals, the plants may attain a height of 5 m at 9 months. For wood production, S. grandiflora can be planted very densely; over 3,000 stem/ha have been planted in Australia and India. For fodder production, S. grandiflora can be grown individually in gardens, house lots and mixed planting. It can also be planted in fence lines, field borders, rice paddy bunds and irrigation ditches" [7]. [Management and yield]: 30- and 60-day-old seedlings in association with mycorrhizae show a significant increase in root and shoot dry biomass compared to non-mycorrhizal plants [1]. "The species is very fast growing hence does not live long and can be harvested on a 3-year short rotation. The growth rate depends on type of soil, cultural practices and amount of water available, which can be supplemented by irrigation. S. grandiflora plantations have reached 3.2 m in 9 months when raised in loamy soils, but only 1.8 m in sandy soils. In well-drained, deep loamy soils, plantations raised at 0.9 x 0.9 m can yield 4 t/ha per year. In Indonesia, 20-25 m³/ha per year of wood yields have been obtained" [7]. "Even when planted only along the edges of agricultural fields, as in Java, yields of 3 m³ of stacked firewood per ha from 2-year rotation periods have been recorded" [3]. "Studies on biomass production at different sites found that best production was at the riverside (65.1 kg/tree at 3.5 years of age); under silvopasture, it was 20.5 kg/tree, and by canals 10.2 kg/tree. The height growth is extremely fast in the 1st year; it slows down considerably in the subsequent 1-2 years, but the

stem above a certain height. Intensive harvesting, such as managing for a hedgerow, shortens the life of the tree. A suitable system involves cutting for fodder only the side branches of trees, leaving the main growing stem untouched. When the foliage is no longer within easy reach, the trees are felled and the long, straight pole can be used for firewood or construction. Under irrigation it grows well, and when grown in backyards the tree normally grows well as it gets waste water from the kitchen. At a very short rotation of 3-4 years, S. grandiflora is capable of producing much higher cellulose raw material per unit area than most other pulp woods. Even trees 3-4 years old can be pulped without debarking and are suitable for chemical pulping. On a 3-year rotation, about 41 t/ha per year of pulp can be harvested" [7]. [1, 7] [Agroforestry]: The species is used in a wide range of agroforestry systems. "Crops continue to grow well when interplanted with S. grandiflora, as its open canopy allows sunlight to pass. However, the species shows a mortality of up to 80% when coppiced" [7].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

diameter growth rate does not slow down. S. grandiflora will not tolerate repeated cutting of the main

6

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: The seed weight of S. grandiflora is 17,000-30,000 seeds/kg [2]. "Seed storage is orthodox. Due to the lack of a seed coat, if viability is to be maintained, the species should be stored in sealed containers at a temperature of 4°C or less and mc of less than 10%. Viability can also be maintained for 2 years in open storage at room temperature" [2]. [Seed Propagation]: "S. grandiflora is easily propagated by direct seeding. It is not hard seeded and usually germinates well without scarification. Pretreatment could involve either scratching or nicking the round end of each seed, avoiding the cotyledon, or soaking in cold or tepid water for 24 hours; 8590% germination occurs. In the nursery, plants can be raised in polythene bags" [7]. [Vegetative Propagation]: "S. grandiflora can also be propagated vegetatively by stem and branch cuttings. In vitro tissue culture has also been reported. Methods to raise plants from hypocotyl and cotyledon explants have been developed" [7].

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "A major problem in raising S. grandiflora is its susceptibility to severe pest attacks. Major pests are leaf webbers, leaf feeders and stem borers. In India, the stem borer Azygophleps scalaris has caused some damage. Larvae of the insect Bruchophagus mellipes infest and damage seeds" [2]. Other insect pests include Agrotis ipsilon (weevil attacking leaves and stems), Aphis cytisorum (aphid seed feeder), Apion decipiens, Argyroploce rhynchias, Bactrocera cucurbitae (larvae develop in the flowers), Bactrocera dorsalis (larvae damage leaves and tender stems), Caliothrips indicus (cotton pest/alternate host), Ceroplastodes, Cryptophlebia rhynchias (stem borer), Spodoptera

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

littoralis and Stegana laterilis (larvae damage leaves and tender stems). Susceptibility to nematodes,

7

like Heterodera trifolii, Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne javanica has been reported. [2] [Diseases]: "The major fungal diseases affecting S. grandiflora are Colletotrichum capsici, causing wilt, Protomycopsis thirumalacharii, causing leaf spot and Pseudocercospora sesbaniae, causing grey leaf spot, the latter occurring only in India" [2]. [Others]: No Information available.

S. Conservation : No Information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Australia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines. [7]

[Exotic]: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Djibouti, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guadeloupe, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Martinique, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Puerto Rico, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda, United States of America. [2, 7, 11]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminology]: "The generic name is derived from an Arab word for one of the species, S. sesban. The specific epithet means large-flowered in Latin" [7]. [Chemistry]: "Per 100 g, the leaf is reported to contain 73.1 g H2O, 8.4 g protein, 1.4 g fat, 11.8 g NFE, 2.2 g fiber, 3.1 g ash, 1,130 mg Ca, 80 mg P, 3.9 mg Fe, 9,000 IU vit. A, 0.21 mg thiamine, 0.09 mg riboflavin, 1.2 mg niacin, and 169 mg ascorbic acid. Leaves contain (ZMB) per 100 g, 321 calories, 36.3 g protein, 7.5 g fat, 47.1 g carbohydrate, 9.2 g fiber, 9.2 g ash, 1,684 mg Ca, 258 mg P, 21 mg Na, 2,005 mg K, 25,679 g -carotene equivalent, 1.00 mg thiamine, 1.04 mg riboflavin, 9.17 mg niacin and 242 mg ascorbic acid. The flowers (ZMB) contain per 100 g, 345 calories, 14.5 g protein, 3.6 g fat, 77.3 g carbohydrate, 10.9 g fiber, 4.5 g ash, 145 mg Ca, 290 mg P, 5.4 mg Fe, 291 mg Na, 1,400 mg K, 636 g -carotene equivalent, 0.91 mg thiamine, 0.72 mg riboflavin, 14.54 mg niacin, and 473 mg ascorbic acid. Seeds (ZMB) contain 36.5% CP, 7.4% fat, 51.6% total carbohydrate, and 4.5% ash. The seed oil contains 12.3% palmitic, 5.2% stearic, 26.2% oleic, and 1.3% ash, 0.8% fat, 2.7% CF, 0.1% free reducing sugars, 1.4% sucrose, 2.8% nitrogen, 6.3% pentosans, and 65.4% carbohydrates. Yields of 33% galactomannans are reported for alkali extraction of the testae. Seeds allowed to germinate (sprouts) for 120 hours increased vit. C content from 17–166 mg/100 g. Extracellular invertase of Rhizobia japonicum and its role in free sugar metabolism in the developing root nodules was studied. The enzyme hydrolyzed sucrose extracellularly, and its release was substrate inducible. 0.1 m -mercaptoethanol released the cellbound form of this enzyme. The production of invertase was low when glucose, galactose, mannose, fructose, and farrinose were used as carbon sources in the growth medium. In the developing nodules sucrose was the major sugar. The content of fructose was low in comparison with that of glucose, suggesting that in the nodules the fructose is converted to glucose prior to its entry into the bacterial cell. The content of glucose synchronized with the pattern of change in the activity of invertase in the nodules" [3]. [Variation and breeding]: "Selection and breeding has been very limited in S. grandiflora. Saleem and Bali (1992) report the results of a provenance trial carried out in Jammu, India. Small germplasm collections have been made at the University of Hawaii (Waimanalo, Hawaii), ILCA (International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; now part of the International Livestock Research

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

53.4% linoleic acids. The seed testa, which constitutes 20% of the seed, contains 5.2% moisture,

8

Institute (ILRI)), and the ATFGRC (Australian Tropical Forages Genetic Resource Centre, CSIRO, Australia). The chromosome number is 2n = 24" [2].

W. Further readings5 : Ash AJ, Petaia L, 1992. Nutritional value of Sesbania grandiflora leaves for monogastrics and ruminants. Tropical Agriculture, 69(3):223-228; 21 ref. [2]

Aziz T, Habte M, Prasad MNV, Rajewar J, Harris PJC, Moore THM, Puddephat IJ, Holden SR, Lungu S, Volk J, 1989. Section 2. Contributed papers involving one NFT genus. Sesbania.. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 7:117-134; ref. [2]

Bhoopander Giri • K. G. Mukerji, October 2003. Mycorrhizal inoculant alleviates salt stress in Sesbania aegyptiaca and Sesbania grandiflora under field conditions: evidence for reduced sodium and improved magnesium uptake. p-307. University of Delhi, India. © Springer-Verlag 2003

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11]

9

Catchpoole DW, Blair GJ, 1990. Forage tree legumes. I. Productivity and N economy of Leucaena, Gliricidia, Calliandra and Sesbania and tree/green panic mixtures. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 41(3):521-530; 28 ref. [2]

Detrez C, Ndiaye S, Dreyfus B, 1994. In vitro regeneration of the tropical multipurpose leguminous tree Sesbania grandiflora from cotyledon explants. Plant Cell Reports, 14(2/3):87-93; 34 ref. [2]

Duguma B, Kang BT, Okali DUU, 1988. Effect of pruning intensities of three woody leguminous species grown in alley cropping with maize and cowpea on an alfisol. Agroforestry Systems, 6(1):19-35; 19 ref. [2]

Eranna S, Sreenivasulu P, Nayudu MV, 1995. Incidence of a mosaic disease of Sesbania grandiflora caused by a sobemovirus in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Phytopathology, 48(1):66-69; 10 ref. [2]

Erb HE, 1979. Natural enemies and distribution of Sesbania punicia (Car) Benth in Argentina. Proc. 3rd National Weed Conference in South Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: AA Balkema, 205210. [2]

Evans DO, 1983. Search for seed of Sesbania grandiflora.. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 1:43. [2]

Evans DO, 1984. Preliminary observations evaluating perennial sesbanias for fodder production. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 2:32-33; 1 ref. [2]

Rao DLN, Steinmueller N, Thomson L, Topark-Ngarm A, Yamoah C, 1990. Perennial sesbania production and use: a manual of practical information for extension agents and development workers. Perennial sesbania production and use: a manual of practical information for extension agents and development workers., iii + 41 pp.; [Publication supported by IDRC and USAID]; 7 ref. [2]

Evans DO, Rotar PP, 1987. Productivity of Sesbania species. Tropical Agriculture, UK, 64(3):193-200; 13 ref. [2]

Evans DO, Rotar PP, 1987. Sesbania in agriculture. Sesbania in agriculture., 192 pp.; [Tropical Agriculture Series]; 38 pp. of ref. [2]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Evans DO, Macklin B, Anderson DM, Brewbaker JL, Gutteridge RC, Narayan Hegde, Osman AM,

10

Ghai SK, Rao DLN, Lalita Batra, 1985. Comparative study of the potential of sesbanias for green manuring. Tropical Agriculture, UK, 62(1):52-56; 8 ref. [2]

Gill AS, 1986. A fuel/fodder production system using Sesbania grandiflora.. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 4:14-15. [2]

Gutteridge RC, 1994. The perennial Sesbania species. In: Gutteridge RC, Shelton HM, eds. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 49-64. [2]

Hansen EH, Munns DN, 1985. Screening of Sesbania species for NaCl tolerance. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 3:60-61. [2]

Hasan N, Jain RK, 1985. Response of some selected Sesbania species to root-knot nematode

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Meloidogyne incognita.. Nematologia Mediterranea, 13(1):15-19; 3 ref.

11

[2]

Jacob K, 1941. Cytological studies in the genus Sesbania. Bibliographica Genetica, 13:225-300. [2]

Joshi HK, Kumar A, 1982. Note on the biology of Pseudocercospora sesbaniae on agasthi (Sesbania grandiflora Pers.). Legume Research, 5(1):57-59; 9 ref. [2]

Kalyanaguranathan P, Sulochana N, Murugesh N, 1985. In vitro haemolytic effect of the flowers of Sesbania grandiflora.. Fitoterapia, 56(3):188-189; 8 ref. [2]

Khattar S, Ram HYM, 1983. Organogenesis and plantlet formation in-vitro Sesbania grandiflora. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 21:251-252. [2]

Kumar A, Joshi HK, 1983. Occurence, incidence and appraisal of grey leaf spots on Sesbania grandiflora.. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 1:7-8; 3 ref. [2]

Macklin B, Evans DO, 1990. Perennial Sesbania species in agroforestry systems: proceedings of a workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya, March 27-31, 1989. Perennial Sesbania species in agroforestry systems: proceedings of a workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya, March 27-31, 1989., viii + 240 pp.; [refs at ends of papers. Special Publication No. 90-01 of NFTA, jointly published with the International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya]. [2]

NFTA. 1994. Sesbania grandiflora. NFTA 94-05. Waimanalo.

Pathak BS, Jain AK, Ajaib Singh, 1987. Characteristics of Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania grandiflora woods. Indian Forester, 113(3):228-232; 5 ref. [2]

Rai P, Pathak PS, Debroy R, 1983. Growth of Sesbania grandiflora in different habitats. International Journal of Eco-Environmental Science, 9:21-27. [2]

Sachet MH, 1987. The littoral species of Sesbania (Leguminosae) in the South Pacific islands and its relatives. Bulletin du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. Section B, Adansonia, 9(1):3-27; [1 col. pl.]; 17 ref. [2]

Saleem M, Bali SV, 1992. Comparative study on the growth of three provenances of Sesbania grandiflora. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 10:204-205.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11]

12

[2]

Salimuddin, Ramesh B, 1993. Karyological studies in the genus Sesbania. Cytologia, 58(3):241-246; 20 ref. [2]

Shah NK, Belavadi VV, Pal RN, 1989. Occurrence of the scale insect Ceroplastodes sp. (Homoptera: Coccidae) on Sesbania.. Journal of the Andaman Science Association, 5(1):86; 5 ref. [2]

Shanker S, Ram HYM, 1990. Plantlet regeneration from tissue cultures of Sesbania grandiflora.. Current Science, 59(1):39-43; 16 ref. [2]

Singh, R., Sidhu, P.S., Vadhera, S., Sital, J.S., Bhatia, S. 1980. Extra-cellular invertase of Rhizobium japonicum and its role in free sugar metabolism in the developing root nodules of Sesbania grandiflora. Physiologia Plantarum 48(4):504–508.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3]

13

Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002a. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp. [3]

Subramanium TR, Muthukrishnan TS, Rao KRN, 1953. Control of Weevil Alcidodes bubo - Fabr. A pest of Agathi, Sesbania grandiflora. Madras Agricultural Journal, 40:525-531. [2]

X. References: [1] Bhoopander Giri; K. G. Mukerji, October 2003. Mycorrhizal inoculant alleviates salt stress in Sesbania aegyptiaca and Sesbania grandiflora under field conditions: evidence for reduced sodium and improved magnesium uptake. p-307. University of Delhi, India. © Springer-Verlag 2003

[2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[3] Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/SearchEngine.html (Internet source)

[4] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[5] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

[6] FAO: http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000171.htm (Internet source)

[7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet source)

[8] Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) -

[9] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[10] Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. - http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb/6.00/taxa/13606.shtml (Internet source)

[11] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations.

[12] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International. 320pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

http://www.hear.org/pier/species/hevea_brasiliensis.htm (Internet source)

14

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer] ³

Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer [3]

B. English name (s)

³

No information available.

C. Synonym

³

No synonym known.

D. Other1

³

kra bak dam (Thailand) [4]

A. Latin name

(s)

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

C½rnI/ lMe)a Source: [9]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ choërni, lumbaô [2] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae

1

Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Shorea Species: Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer Source :[ 3]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A large tree which grows to a height of 45 m [3]. Twigs are slightly angular or compressed, dark brown and hairless. [Bark]: The bark is shallowly fissured. [Leaves]: The leaves are 8-16 x 4.5-5 cm [3], thick, oblong or oblong-spear-shaped, rounded or pointed. The leaf-base is rounded or squared off, hairless above except the midrib, which covered by

fine hairs. The lateral nerves are in pairs of 15-18 [3], slightly curved. The leaf stalk is 2-3.5 cm [3] long, cylindrical, hairless, and slightly wrinkled. [Flowers]: The flowers occur in axillary and terminal inflorescences which are 15-19 cm long. Sepals (=outer fruit leaves) are 0.5-0.65 cm [3] long, egg-shaped, the outer 2 rounded at the apex, the inner 3 pointed, all densely velvety with star-like hairs. The petals (=inner flower leaves) are 1.3 cm [3] long (1.2 cm [5]), broadly egg-shaped to oblong and rounded at the end, 15 veined [3], silky hairy on the portions exposed in bud. The flower contains 22-25 stamens (=male organs) with flat filaments, egshaped below and shortly slender above. The anthers are linear oblong, rounded at the base, connective and 0.3 cm long [3]. The ovary (female organ) is ellipsoid, narrowed into an awl shaped swelling at the base, with fine hairs. The stigma is 3-lobed ". [Fruits]: No information available. [3, 5]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: No information available.

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Shorea farinosa occurs in lowland evergreen forests. [5]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available

M. soil and site conditions : No information available

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The timber is used for costruction [2] [Non-wood]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd Class. [1]

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No information available

2

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Shorea farinosa occurrs in lowland evergreen forests. [5] [Establishment and Management]: There is almost nothing known with regard to establishment and management.

Q. Propagation : No information available

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : This species is considered as critically endangered (CR A1cd, C2a [4]), according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). "Shorea farinosa is very scattered throughout its potential distribution range with a few individual trees. However, number of recent and past collections are comparable" [4].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

3

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia and Vietnam. [2, 4] [Introduced]: Apparently this species has not been grown outside its natural distribution.

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available

W. Further readings5 : No information available

X. References: [1] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[3] Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph 1985/4. Regional office for Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.

[4] Forest Herbarium (BKF) National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Thailand www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)

[5] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6] Sontara, S. (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.

4

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Shorea obtusa Wall, Shorea obtusa Wallich ex Blume]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Shorea obtusa Wall, Shorea obtusa Wallich ex Blume] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Shorea obtusa Wall. [4], Shorea obtusa Wallich ex Blume [9]

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

Shorea leucobotrya Miq. [4]

D. Other1

³

balau (Trade name) [6] - ca`chăc, c[af] ch[aws]c (Vietnam) [5, 9] - chik (Laos) [6] - teng (Thailand) [6] - thitya (Myanmar) [6]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

p©wk Source: [3]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phchök [3, 8], phchek [8] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Shorea Species: Shorea obtusa Wallich ex Blume Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A small to medium-sized deciduous tree attaining a height of up to 25 m [4] (-27 m [10, 13], -30 m [6, 9], 10-30 m [16]) but usually much smaller. The bole is branchless for up to 15 m [6] with a DBH of 60 cm [6] (65 cm [9]) and a girth of 250 cm [4]. Young branches are covered by star- shaped hair.

[Bark]: The outer bark is red brown when young, blackish grey to brown when older, thick and rough, deeply cracked. The inner bark is yellowish brown and fibrous exuding a dull yellow resin (='dammar'). [Leaves]: The leaves are elliptic or oblong, usually blunt and rounded at both ends, 8-15 x 3-7.5 cm up to 12 x 22 cm in young trees [10] (5-10 x 10-15 cm [4], 7.0-11.5 x 3.5-9.5 cm [9]). S. obtusa can be distinguished from other Shorea spp. due to the rounded ends (both) of leaves, the yellow color of old leaves and the 1.8 cm [4] short, stout leaf stalk. Secondary veins are in pairs of 10-14 [4] (15-20 [9]). Young leaves are sprinkled with tufts of star-shaped hairs beneath, but are usually hairless when mature. They are shed in the early part of the dry season with trees remaining leafless for some time. In moist localities the new leaves may appear sooner after the fall of the old ones. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=panicle) is axillary and densely covered with hairs. The flowers are yellow, almost without a flowerstalk. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are hairy. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are narrow, linear to linear-spear-shaped and hairy outside. The flower has 26-29 stamens (=male organs) [9] (20-25 stamens [4]) with short appendages. The ovary (=female organ) is hairy. Flowers appear in March-April [4]. [Fruits]: The fruits ripen in May-June [4]. The fruit (=nut) is hairy, 0.6-0.8 cm wide [10] with a short tip, 3 larger wings 5-6 x 1.2-1.5 cm [10] (6 cm x 1.1 cm [9], 5 cm long [4]) and 3 shorter wings 1.5-3 cm [10]. [4, 6, 9, 10, 13, 16]

I. Wood properties: The sapwood is pale yellow to pale brownish-white, narrow, prishable, the heartwood is brown,

interlocked grained and medium textured. The wood is very hard, durable and heavy with a density of 1.05 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [4, 5, 11] (0.83-1.04 g/cm³ at 15% mc [6, 9], 1-1.073 g/cm³ at 12% mc [4]). It is especially durable in the open and in contact with water. Seasoning is slow and difficult. Also sawing has reported to be rather difficult, mostly due to the high resin content. It is slightly susceptible to surface cracking and end splitting. However, untreated sleepers have lasted for 15 years [4] (10-15 years [16]). [4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 13, 16]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 23°N to 5°N [8]. S. obtusa is a common tree species of the Indochinese, Thai and Malay Peninsula. Often it is found growing gregariously, although sometimes sporadic. It grows in dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, deciduous monsoon forests and open, dry degraded areas like mixed savanna forests. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in association with D. tuberculatus, D. intricatus, D. obtusifolius, Terminalia tomentosa and Shorea siamensis. Dry dipterocarp forests are characterized by a low number of species, open tree canopies and tree heights of 8 to 25 m [8]. The undergrowth is often weak, combustible (=inflammable, burns rapidly) and fires are frequent during the dry season. The dominant tree species are adapted to fire. In deciduous monsoon forests it grows in plant communities together with Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata. In dry degraded areas it

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

turning to dark brown or dark reddish brown, often with fine dark lines, dull, working quite smooth,

2

is often in association with Shorea siamensis or Pinus keysia. In mixed savanna forests it forms communities with Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius and Pentacme siamensis. [3, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 17]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Shorea obtusa is a species of the highlands and lowlands and can be found at an elevation between 200 and 1,000 m a.s.l. [6, 9] (150-1,300 m [3], -1,400 m [10]). Tropical monsoon climates with an annual precipitation of 1,250 to 2,000 mm/year [12], with a well pronounced wet season and a dry season of up to 6 months is suited best. However, it can also grow with less than 1,250 mm [12]. This tree is a strong light demander and is tolerant to the frequent fires that occur in its habitat after it has reached maturity. [3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No name available.

M. soil and site conditions : It grows well on well-drained sandy soils, rocky soils, lateritic soils, including ferric acrisols, gleyic acrisols, and ferralic cambisols. Unlike the majority of dipterocarps, it can survive even on very poor soils and rocky areas. An acid to neutral pH is suitable for this tree species. In Cambodia it is often

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

found on gray soil on shale.

3

[4, 5, 12, 17]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood of Shorea obtusa and Shorea siamensis are often marketed together under the same commercial name (='balau' timber). The wood is of high commercial value and is used for construction works, bridges, piles, ship-building, framing of boats, utility and garden furniture, interior uses such as parquet flooring, heavy-duty flooring, window- and door frames. It is also very valuable for railway sleepers. [4, 6, 9, 13, 15] [Non-wood]: The bark has a high tannin content and exudes a yellowish resin. The resin from the wood is used for caulking baskets and boats. In Cambodia this resin is used to make a traditional torch. It is also used in medicine as it has antibiotic properties and is used for wounds and ulcers. It is also recommended as a cure for dysentery. The bark is used to treat malaria. [6, 9, 13, 16] [Others]: "Occasionally Shorea obtusa is a host for lac insects" [4].

O. Cambodian wood classification : First class [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: S. obtusa grows frequently in dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, deciduous monsoon forests and open, dry degraded areas. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in association with D. tuberculatus, D. intricatus, D. obtusifolius and Shorea siamensis. Dry dipterocarp forests are characterized by a low number of species, open tree canopies and tree heights of 8 to 25 m [8]. The dominant

tree species are adapted to fire. In deciduous monsoon forests it grows in plant

communities together with Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata. In dry degraded areas it is often in association with Shorea siamensis or Pinus keysia. [Establishment]: In the establishment phase it is necessary to protect the seedlings from excessive fire. [Management]: As it is a light demander, no special operations are necessary except removal of competitors and lightning of overhead shade by thinnings. The species is a good coppicer. [3, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14]

Q. Propagation : The species regenerates satisfactorily where it is gregarious. However, natural regeneration has been supplemented by planting out seedlings raised in nurseries. The viability of freshly collected seeds is low and after screening out those attacked by insects and clipping the wings, they are sown right away into shaded nursery beds. Survival percentage has been reported to be 65-75% [4]. Stump

[4]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : This species has not yet been classified according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, its status is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc). It is found throughout its potential distribution with a great number of individual trees. [7]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

planting has not been successful.

4

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and S. Vietnam [5, 6, 9, 13] [Introduced]: Apparently this species does not occur yet outside of its natural range. [8]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No name available.

W. Further readings5 : Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960-. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. [9]

Fundter, J.M., 1982. Names for dipterocarp timbers and trees from Asia. Pudoc, Wageningen. 251 pp. [9]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Smitinand, T., Santisuk, T. & Phengklai, C., 1980. The manual of Dipterocarpaceae of mainland South-East Asia. Thai Forestry Bulletin 12: 1-110.

5

[9]

van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors), 1950-. Flora Malesiana. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London. [9]

X. References: [1] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[2] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).

[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[4] Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph 1985/4. Regional office for Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.

[5] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[6] PROSEA, 1994: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (1) Timber trees: Major commercial timbers.

[7] Forest Herbarium (BKF) National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Thailand http://www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)

[8] Sontara, S. (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.

[9] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[10] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[12] van Liere, W.; McNeely, J.A., Agriculture in the Lower Mekong Basin: Experience from the Critical Decade of 1966-1976: http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/html-books/agriculture-mekongbasin/cover.html (Internet source, 2005)

[13] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe

[14] Stibig, H-J. and Beuchle, R., 2003: Forest Cover Map of Continental Southeast Asia at 1:4,000,000. TREES Publications Series D: Thematic outputs no. 4.

[15] WWF - Tropical timbers available in FSC-certified wood: http://assets.panda.org/downloads/tropical_wood_images.pdf (Internet source)

[16] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[17] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[11] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sea/Products/AFDbases/WD/asps/DisplayDetail.asp?SpecID=31 50 (Internet source)

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Shorea siamensis Miq.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Shorea siamensis Miq.] ³

Shorea siamensis Miq. [3]

B. English name (s)

³

No name available.

C. Synonym

³

Pentacme malayana King, Pentacme siamensis Kurz,

A. Latin name

(s)

Pentacme siamensis(Miq.) Kurz, Pentacme siamensis Var. mekongensis Craib, Pentacme suavis A.DC., Pentacme tomentosa Craib [3]

D. Other1

³

balau (Trade name) [5] - meranti teamak, temak batu (Malaysia) [5] - eng-yin (Myanmar) [5] - h'ang, ph'au (Laos) [5] - rang, rang khao, lak pao (Thailand) [5] - c[af] ch[aw]c xanh, c[aar]m li[ee]a (Vietnam) [5]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

p©wkraMg/ raMgPñM

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [5]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phchok re`ang, re`ang phnum [2, 5] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Shorea Species: Shorea siamensis Miq. Source :[ 5]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A medium sized deciduous tree growing up to 18-27 m [3] (20-25 m [5, 8, 9]). The bole is straight, buttressed and branchless for up to 12-15 m [3] with a DBH of 60 cm [5] and a girth of 100 cm. Young shoots are covered by greyish or whitish star-shaped hairs. [Bark]: The outer bark is grey to blackish-grey, very thick and hard, vertically and horizontally fissured with deep cracks in old trees. The inner bark is reddish brown with pale yellow brown resin and a tannin content of 9% [3]. [Leaves]: The leaves are 10-22 x 7-16 cm [9] (9-12 cm x 6-13 cm [5]), broadly egg-shaped or oval with rounded or slightly pointed tips. Young leaves are pale red brown with star shaped hairs, mature leaves are usually dull green, papery and almost smooth, rarely densely hairy with 9-16 pairs [9] (15 pairs [3]) of side veins. The leaf stalk is 2-3.5 cm long [3]. Shorea siamensis can easily be recognized when the old leaves turn bright red before they fall. The leaves are shed towards the end of January or early February [3] and the tree remains leafless till April [3] when a new flush of leaves appears. In moist localities the tree is leafless only for a short period. [Flowers]: The inflorescence (=panicle) is axillary and hairy. The fragrant flowers are 1-2 cm [9] in diameter, bright yellow and often with red tinge. They are arranged in slender branched clusters of 520 flowers [9] near end of twigs, 15-25 cm [9] usually appearing just before young leaves. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are spear-shaped to broadly elliptical and velvety outside. The petals are closely twisted together into an open mouthed globe with recurved tips, fused at the base and falling together as a rosette with 15 stamens (=male organs) [3] attached in 2 whorls, 10 in the outer and 5 in the inner whorls [9]. The anthers are smooth with long narrow, slightly unequal tips and short

appear in March [3]. [Fruits]: Fruits ripen from May to June [3]. The fruit (=nut) is ovoid and 1.4-1.6 cm wide with a long tip. The nuts are enclosed by the expanded and thickened bases of the enlarged calyx lobes (=fruit wings). The 3 outer larger ones have blunt tips and are about 5 cm long [3] (up to 12 x 1.3 cm [8], 5-8 x 1-1.5 cm [9]). The 2 inner ones are 0.75-1.25 cm long [3] (2-5 x 1 cm [9]) and linear spear-shaped. [4, 5, 8, 9]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is dull grey to brown or reddish, the heartwood yellow brownish turning to reddish brown or dark brown, grained, with a medium coarse texture. In comparison to other dipterocarps the timber is very hard and heavy but also quite durable. "Graveyard tests have indicated a life of over 270 months. Untreated sleepers have lasted 15 years" [3]. The wood has a density of 0.7-1.09 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [5] (0.70.98 g/cm³ [3], 1.02 g/cm³ [4]) and 0.913 g/cm³ at 12% mc [3]. Other important wood properties: Shrinkage percentage (green to oven dry): 4.2% (radial), 9.8% (tangential), 14.3% (volumetric). Modulus of rupture: 902.0 kg/cm² (green), 1,029.6 kg/cm²(air dry). Modulus of elasticity: 141,5 kg/cm² (green), 164,1 kg/cm² (air dry). Maximum crushing stress: 480.5 kg/cm² (green), 561.7 kg/cm² (air dry)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

filaments. The ovary (=female organ) is ovoid with a thread-like style and one stigma. The flowers

2

[3]. It seasons slowly and surface cracking is significant. Sawing and working is rather difficult and it is quite tolerant to treatment, however it can take a good polish on a well finished surface. The wood of Shorea siamensis contains 6% [8] of tannin. [3, 4, 5, 8]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 23°N to 5°N [7]. S. siamensis is a very common but often gregarious tree species of the Indochinese, Thai and Malay Peninsula. Just like Shorea obtusa, it grows in dry deciduous dipterocarp forests and open and dry degraded areas. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in association with D. tuberculatus, D. intricatus, D. obtusifolius and Shorea obtusa. These forests are characterized by a low number of species, open tree canopies and tree heights of 8 to 25 m [10]. The dominant dipterocarp species are adapted to fire. In dry degraded areas it is often dominant in association with Shorea obtusa or Pinus keysia. [4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Shorea siamensis grows from sea level to over 1,000 m altitude [5, 8]. It prefers a tropical monsoon climate with an annual precipitation of 1,250 to 2,000 mm/year [11], with a well pronounced wet season and a dry season of up to 6 months [11]. When it has reached maturity it is very fire resistant. [5, 8, 9, 11]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

No name available.

3

M. soil and site conditions : Unlike the majority of dipterocarps, it can survive even on very poor soils. It has adapted to very dry conditions and mainly grows on shallow poor, and rocky sand soils, or limestone soils with an acid to neutral pH. [3, 4, 8]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood of Shorea obtusa and Shorea siamensis are often marketed together under the same commercial name (='balau' timber). This wood is attractive for light and heavy 'long term' construction (e.g. bridge construction, mine shafts, oil wells), especially in Myanmar. It is also used for piles, dug-outs, ploughs, etc. and is regarded as an excellent sleeper wood. [3, 4, 5] [Non-wood]: Bark and wood contain respectively 9% and 6% tannin, which is too little to be of commercial importance. [5]

[Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : First class. [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Shorea siamensis grows in dry deciduous dipterocarp forests and open and dry degraded areas. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in association with D. tuberculatus, D. intricatus, D. obtusifolius and Shorea obtusa. These forests are characterized by a low number of species, open tree canopies and tree heights of 8 to 25 m [10]. The dominant Dipterocarp species are adapted to fire. In dry degraded areas it is often dominant in association with Shorea obtusa or Pinus keysia. [Establishment]: During the establishment phase fire protection is necessary by removing grasses and other undergrowth. [Management]: Root suckers are produced occasionally. It coppices well [3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10]

Q. Propagation : Natural reproduction is obtained without any special treatment. Uniform regeneration is, however, uncommon due to dry periods with a delay or low amounts of rainfall after the trees have shed their seeds. "The seed loses its viability quickly and fails to germinate if it happens to fall on dry ground, particularly if exposed to the sun. Thus, successful germination depends largely on timely rains. high fire frequencies, the species grows shrubby until the root system is vigorous enough to send up a strong terminal shoot, which rapidly develops a thick rough, fire resistant bark at the base. In areas where regeneration failed, freshly collected seeds are sown into holes. [3]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: No information available. [Diseases]: No information available. [Others]: No information available.

S. Conservation : This species has not yet been classified according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, its status is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc). It is widespread and fairly common in the north and northeast of Indochina, but scattered and fragmented in the south. [6]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Under natural conditions the seedlings take a long time to establish themselves" [3]. In areas with

4

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, NW-Malaysia and Vietnam. [4, 5] [Introduced]: Apparently this species does not occur yet outside of its natural range. [7]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No name available.

W. Further readings5 : Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444. [8]

Fundter, J.M., 1982. Names for dipterocarp timbers and trees from Asia. Pudoc, Wageningen. 251 pp.

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[8]

5

Smitinand, T., Santisuk, T. & Phengklai, C., 1980. The manual of Dipterocarpaceae of mainland South-East Asia. Thai Forestry Bulletin 12: 1-110. [8]

Symington, C.F., 1941. Foresters' manual of dipterocarps. Malayan Forest Records No 16. Forest Department, Kuala Lumpur. pp. xliii + 244. [8]

van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors), 1950-. Flora Malesiana. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London. [8]

X. References: [1] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[3] Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph 1985/4. Regional office for Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.

[4] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.

[5] Soerianegera et al, 1994 . Prosea : Plant Resosurces of South-east asia : (1) Timber trees : Major commercial timbers

[6] Forest Herbarium (BKF) National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Thailand -

[7] Sontara, Sou (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.

[8] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CDROM).

[9] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[10] Stibig, H-J. and Beuchle, R., 2003: Forest Cover Map of Continental Southeast Asia at 1:4,000,000. TREES Publications Series D: Thematic outputs no. 4.

[11] van Liere, W.; McNeely, J.A., Agriculture in the Lower Mekong Basin: Experience from the Critical Decade of 1966-1976: http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/html-books/agriculture-mekongbasin/cover.html (Internet source, 2005)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)

6

7

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Shorea thorelii Pierre]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Shorea thorelii Pierre] ³

Shorea thorelii Pierre

B. English name (s)

³

No name available

C. Synonym

³

Shorea argentea, Parashorea laotica [3]

D. Other1

³

teng ta ni (general), dang, si, takhian teng, chan, chan khao,

A. Latin name

(s)

chan tok (Thailand) [3]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

x©Úv/ p©wk]tþm Source: [2]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khchow, phchok owdam, khtiaou [5] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Phylum: Spermatophyta

1

Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Malvales Family: Dipterocarpaceae Genus: Shorea Species: Shorea thorelii Pierre Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: S. thorelii is a large sized deciduous tree with a height of 30-40 m [2]. The buds are densely covered with short brown tufted hairs. [Bark]: No information available. [Leaves]: The leaves are elliptic to oblong, with a slightly depressed midrib above. The secondary nerves are in pairs of 10-15 [3, 4]. Leafstalks have a size of 1-1.5 cm [3]. The leaves have spear-

shaped leaf-like appendages (=stipules) at the base of their stalks which are also covered with short brown hair. [Flowers]: Flower buds are egg shaped to spear shaped, with egg shaped inner flower leaves (=petals) and of creamy white to pale yellow color. Each flower contains [Stamens]: 30-40 [3] (30-48 [4]) stamens (=male organs) with hairy anthers. The connectives are slender, curved upward, and beard-like with 2-5 stiff hairs [3]. The ovary is conical and hairy. Flowering occurs from January to May [3] [Fruits]: Fruiting season is January-July [3]. The fruit (=nut) is egg-shaped with 1-1.5 cm in diameter [3]. The fruiting calyx is hairy and pouched calyx bases cover less than half of the nut with 3 longer lobes 4-7 cm long [3] and 2 shorter ones with 3-3.5 cm [3]. [3, 4]

I. Wood properties: No information available.

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Shorea thorelii is an Indo-Burmese tree species that is scattered in South Myanmar and is locally common throughout Indochina (especially Laos) except North Vietnam [3]. In Thailand, it is rather common in the northeast but not in the lower part of the peninsula, and confined to semi-evergreen to evergreen forests. It also occurs in dry dense forests and secondary formations. [2, 3, 4]

This tree can be found in an altitude of between 50 and 300 m a.s.l [2]. In Thailand S. thorelii grows up to 600 m a.s.l [3]. [2, 3]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : In Cambodia this species was recorded to grow on acid red soils which are located on basaltic ranges. [5]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is used for small inside works. [2] [Non-wood]: The resin of the trunk is harvested for the caulking of boats. The bark can be mixed with food to make humans and livestock (esp. pigs) sterile.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

K. Climate and environmental amplitude :

2

[2] [Others]: No information available.

O. Cambodian wood classification : 2nd class [2, 5]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: In Thailand, Shorea thorelii is confined to semi-evergreen to evergreen forests. It also occurs in dry dense forests and secondary formations. [3, 4] [Establishment]: No information available. [Management]: No information available.

Q. Propagation : No information available.

R. Hazards and protection : No information available.

S. Conservation : S. thorelii has been classified as critically endangered (CR A1cd [3]) and endangered (EN A1c, C2a

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[3]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened

3

Trees. It is widely scattered through its fragmented potential distribution areas with low numbers of individual trees. "Recent collections are more numerous than past ones" [3]. [3]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution]: [Native]: Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, S-Myanmar, S-Vietnam [3, 4]

[Introduced]: This species has not been distributed outside its natural range. [6]

V. Miscellaneous4 : No information available.

W. Further readings5 : No information available.

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium 1998-2000. (CD-ROM).

[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia.

[3] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis: http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Shorea.htm#7.19%20Shore a%20thorelii

[4] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[5] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6] Leang Horn, 2006: Own observations.

4

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq.] A. Latin name (s) B. English name (s) C. Synonym

³ ³ ³

Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq. No name available. Sindora cochinchinensis Baill. [2], Sindora cochinchinensis H.Baill. [4], Sindora wallichii var.siamensis (Teijsm. ex Miq.) Barker [6], Sindora wallichii var. siamensis (Teijsm.) Bak. [3], Sindora cochinchinensis Baillon (1867) [3, 5]

D. Other1

³

sepetir mempelas (Malaysia) [5] - têtê 'hoho (Laos) [5] – makha-tae, makha-nam, makha-yum (Thailand) [5] - g[uj] m[aaj]t, g[ox] m[aaj]t (Vietnam) [5]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

kekaH Source: [3]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krâkâh' G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Kingdom: Viridiplantae

1

Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales

Family: Fabaceae Gunus: Sindora Miq. Species: Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq. [5]

Source :[ -]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: A small to medium-sized, sometimes large evergreen tree, generally attaining a height of 610 m [4] (15 m [5]) and occasionally 30-35 m [4, 6]. The bole is straight, sometimes stout, cylindrical and branchless for at least 12 m [5] (15-25 m [3], 15-20 m [4, 6]) with a DBH of over 40 cm [5] (80-100 cm [4]). The crown is rounded to umbrella shaped and spreading, densely branched. Twigs are robust, compressed, covered with yellow hairs in an early stage, later hairless with many lenticels.

[Bark]: The younger bark is dark brown with grey spots, longitudinally and horizontally fissured, breaks into square or rectangular pieces with age. The inner bark is pink, very fibrous and 1 cm thick [5].

[Leaves]: The pinnate leaf is 15-25 cm long [3] and consists of compound pairs of 6-8 leathery leaflets. The leaflets are egg-shaped to opposite egg-shaped and hairy on both surfaces (upper surface with small rough hairs, lower surface with tiny soft hairs [3]). The leaf tip is pointed, the leaf base is broadly wedge-shaped. Side veins are often straight to the margin, the bottom pair has a small but distinct gland near the base of a dense network of finer veins. The leaf-stalks are very short.

[Flowers]: The inflorescences (=panicles) are a 15-25 cm long [4] (10-20 cm [3]) narrowly branched cluster of flowers, terminal or axillary, with straight or zigzag axes, solitary, paired, or tripartite, densely brownish, and hairy at end of twig and upper leaf axils. The flowers are 0.5-0.7 cm long [3] (0.7-1 cm [6]). The 4 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fleshy green with dense golden-brown hairs, elliptic to broadly elliptic, 7-10 x 4-6 mm [6], unequal-sized, bearing several spiny outgrowths near the tip and often showing numerous warts all over, inside covered by glossy brown hairs. The inner flower

purple, fleshy, with a central thick length zone. The petals are densely wooly outside, inside brown and hairless. Bracts (=reduced leaves) form a flower head, are egg-shaped or heart-shaped, 3-7 mm long [6] and densely haired. The bracteoles (=leaf like structure on a flower) are egg-shaped, approximately 5 x 2 mm [6] and hairy on both surfaces. Flowerstalks are 2-4 cm long [6] and densely covered with dark brown hairs. Each flower has 10 stamens (=male organs) with 9 fertile and 1 sterile anthers [3]. The fertile ones are joined at the base, with 2 of them being longer than the others with 1.8-2.3 cm [3] (15-20 mm long [6]). The female organ (=ovary) is unstalked, densely hairy along the suture, with spines appearing late in the development. The ovary contains 3-8 ovules (=immature seed) with a recurved style, hairless and 8-10 mm long [6]. The stigma is terminal and knob-shaped.

[Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are armed with 3-5 mm long [4], straight and sticky spines on 2 surfaces [3]. The fruit itself is flattened, irregularly egg-shaped or broadly elliptic, 4-10 x 3-8 cm in size [6] (6 cm diameter [4], 4.5-8 cm [3]), with a 5-7 mm long [6] curved beak. Fruits are shedding when mature, bearing one seed [4] (1-3 large black seeds [3]). Seeds are placed on top of a large aril, round or broadly elliptic, flattened, 15-25 x 14-17 mm [6] (10-12 x 10-11 mm [4]). The dry aril is cushion-shaped and 10-15 mm long [6] (15-20 mm [3]). [3, 4, 5, 6]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

leaves (=petals) are yellow-green or pinkish [3], narrowly elliptic, 7-10 x 2-4 mm [6], when dry dull

2

[Wood Properties]: The sapwood is grey-brown or light brown, the heartwood is fulvous with dark brown or black streaks, soft to moderate hard and light to moderate heavy with a density of about 0.88 g/cm³ at 12% moisture content [5] (0.72-0.83 g/cm³ at unknown mc [4]). The texture is moderate fine and even. It is resistant to termites and insects. [4, 5]

I. Wood properties: J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : This species occurs in Thailand, Indochina, Southern China and the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. It grows in pure and mixed dipterocarp forests, is a dominating species in open dry dipterocarp forests and occurs in deciduous or semi-evergreen forests both in primary and secondary formations. In Thailand it is "especially common in semi-open forests, particularly in the south, becoming much less common in the north of Chiang Mai" [3]. "Usually it is mixed with Schima crenata, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Canarium subulatum and Cratoxylum polyanthum. This species has been planted in Hanoi Botanical garden and Saigon Zoo-park" [4]. [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : S. siamensis occurs from the plains to the foothills up to an altitude of 500 m a.s.l. [5] and is strongly

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

light demanding. In Cambodia it grows in a seasonal monsoon climate with a mean annual rainfall of

3

1,000 to more than 2,000 mm/year [8] and a dry season of 5-6 months [8].

[4, 5, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Deep, sandy, brown soils and grey loamy soils are suited best for this species. It even grows on poor and rocky soils. [4]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The wood is in high demand for general construction, furniture, planking, flooring, beams, columns, ships and fine art articles, developing a beautiful appearance when used for a long time.

The by-products of the wood are used as a good quality charcoal and firewood. [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

[Non-wood]: Sindora siamensis yields a wood-oil which is used for caulking boats. The fruits are edible and chewed sometimes together with betel nut or as a substitute. The roasted seeds are used to make a tealike drink and is part of some desserts. In Thailand the bark is used for partition walls but also for dyeing fishing nets. [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

[Others]: Trees are planted as shade or ornamental trees due to their beautiful shape. [3, 6]

O. Cambodian wood classification : [General]: Sindora siamensis grows in pure and mixed dipterocarp forests and is a dominating species in open dry dipterocarp forests. It also occurs in deciduous or semi-evergreen forests both in primary and secondary formations. "Usually it is mixed with Schima crenata, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Canarium subulatum and Cratoxylum polyanthum" [4]. It is a light demander with a moderate growth rate, attaining 8 m in height [4] and 10 cm in diameter at 12 years of age [4].

[Establishment]: No information available.

P. Silviculture and management : First Class. [2]

Q. Propagation : No information available.

R. Hazards and protection : No information available.

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Management]: No information available.

4

V. Miscellaneous4 : [World Distribution]:

Native: Cambodia, China, Thailand, N-Malaysia (Peninsular), Laos (Vientiane, Savanna Khet, Saravane and Champassak provinces), Vietnam (Kon Tum, Gia Lai, Dac Lac, Lam Dong, Dong Nai, Song Be and Tay Ninh) [3, 4, 5, 6]

Introduced: No information available.

[Varieties]: "Two varieties are distinguished: var. siamensis and var. maritima (Pierre) K.Larsen & S.S. Larsen, the latter being less common and having much less spiny pods" [5].

[Identification]: It is similar to Afzelia xylocarpa but has thinner leaves with more pointed tips, larger flowers with an obvious green or reddish petal and large woody fruits without spines. [3]

W. Further readings5 : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1] CABI: Forestry Compendium 1998-2000. (CD-ROM).

5

[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[3] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand.

[4] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. Hanoi

[5] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

[6] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[7] Leang Horn, 2006: Own observations.

[8] Blasco, F.; Bellan, M.F., Lacaze, D., 1997: Carté del la Végétation du Cambodge, 1/1,000,000. Laboratoire d'Ecologie Terrestre de Toulouse.

X. References: Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444. [5]

de Wit, H.C.D., 1949. Revision of the genus Sindora Miquel (Legum.). Bulletin of the Botanic Gardens, Buitenzorg, ser. 3, 18: 5-82. [5]

Desch, H.E., 1954. Manual of Malayan timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 15. 2 volumes. Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore. 762 pp. [5]

Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960-. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. [5]

Research Institute of Wood Industry, 1988. Identification, properties and Uses of some Southeast Asian woods. Chinese Academy of Forestry, Wan Shou Shan, Beijing & International Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama. 201 pp. [5]

Department, Bangkok. [5]

Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972-1989. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 4 Volumes. 2nd ed. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Longman Malaysia SDN Berhad, Kuala Lumpur. [5]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Smitinand, T. & Larsen, K. (Editors), 1970-. Flora of Thailand. The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels A. Latin name

(s)

³

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels [8] (WorldAgroforestry Centre indicates that the species name should correctly carry 2 i´s at the end, all other sources use cumini).

B. English name (s)

³

black olum tree [12]; Java olum, jambolan [6,9], malabar plum, [9], Java olum, java plum [6,19] black plum,Indian blackberry, jambolan plum, Portuguese plum [26].

C. Synonym

³

Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce., E. jambolana Lam., Myrtus cumini L. [8], Jambolifera sinensis Spreng., Syzigium cumini Skeels (only 1 i at the end); Syzygium jambolanum [26]; Calyptranthes

caryophyllifolia

(Lam.)

Willd., C. oneillii

Lundell, Eugenia caryophyllifoliaSyzygium caryophyllifolium (Lamb.) DC

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D. Other1

1

³

Pring bai (Cambodia); jamblang, duvet (Indonesia); va, sa, sa leng, (Laos); jambulana jambulan (Malaysia); thabyayhypyoo (Burma); duhat, lomboi (Philippines); wa, hakhipae (Thailand); vôi rùng (Vietnam [6,8]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

RBIg)ay RBIgedaHRkbI Source: [-]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ pri:ng ba:y, pri:ng dahs krabei [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae

Other : Myrtales Family: Myrtaceae Gunus: Syzygium Gaertn.[8] Species: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels [4] Source :[4 ; 11]

H. Botanical characteristics : Syzygium is a large genus with about 1000 species occurring in the African and Asian tropics. About 70 species occur in Indochina, 80 in Thailand, 190 in Peninsular Malaysia, 50 in Java, 165 in Borneo (Kalimantan), 180 in the Philippines and 140 in New Guinea. The fruit of some species are edible and these are commonly cultivated, notably S. aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston, S. cumini (L.) Skeels, S. malaccense (L.) Merr.& Perry, and S. samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry.

[General]: An evergreen, sometimes in drier sites partly deciduous, tree , up to 25-35 m tall; twigs angular when young, later terete [5,8]. An evergreen tree 10-20-30m high, 40-90 cm in diameter, branching low, with irregular crown spreading up to 12 m wide [6]. [Bark]: Grey, slightly flaking or deeply cracked, inner bark reddish. Petiole 0.6-2.8 cm long [5,8].

[Leaves]: Elliptic or ovate-elliptic, 6-13, (9-14) by 3-7, (3.5-6.0) cm , narrowly ovate or lanceolate with pointed or blunt tip and slightly tapering base [5]; 7-13 pairs of side-veins, usually with marginal vein, mid-vein sunken above. Stalks 1.0-1.8 cm, slender [5]. Index 2, base cuneate, acute or rounded, apex shortly acuminate, secondary veins 19-30 pairs, intramarginal vein 1 [8]. Leaves opposite, entire, broadly obovate-elliptic to elliptic-oblong, 5-25 cm long and 2-10 cm wide with 1.0-3.5 cm long leaf stalk, cuneate or rounded at base, tip blunt, edges thin transparent, pinkish when young, later dark green above, with a faint turpentine smell when crushed [6]. [Flowers]: White or cream, in forked clusters at the end of twigs and upper leaf axils, 3-6 cm, usually with several branches from base. Flowers in threes, central one without stalk, side ones with slender stalks. Buds 4-7 mm. Calyx cup 6.0-8.5 mm, funnel-shaped with distinct stalk, 2.5-4.5 mm and 4 large, rounded lobes. 4 free petals, rounded, densely gland-dotted. Outer stamens 7-13 mm, style 8.5-15.0 mm [5]. Flowers in 5-12 cm long panicles, usually on leafless branches; flowers small, fragrant, with 4 grey-white to pink petals [6]. Inflorescences terminal or axillary panicles, several together, shorter than the leaves, 4-10 cm long, peduncles 3-10 mm long, branches and branchlets striate. Bracts triangular, 7 by 10 mm. Bracteoles triangular, 6 by 4 mm. Flowers white or pale yellow, sessile. Hypanthial cup 2.4-5.1 mm long, funnel-shaped. Pseudostipe 1-2 mm long. Sepals 4, triangular or rounded, obscure, 2.5-6.0 mm long. Petals 4, joined into a cup, 1.4-2.8 mm long, early

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Rough, dark-grey bark in lower part, lighter grey and smoother higher up [6].

2

caducous, 5-19 gland dots per petal. Outer stamens 4-6 mm long, anthers elliptic, 0.4-0.5 mm long. Ovary 2-locular, ovules 10-18 per locule, style 1.8-6.5 mm long [8]. [Fruit ]: The fruit is an ovoid-oblong berry, often curved, dark violet, 1-2 cm long. (0.5)-1.2-3.5 cm, pale green to dark-purple black, globose [5]. Fruit ovoid-oblong, 1-5 cm long, dark violet and juicy with 0-5 green to brown seeds, up to 3.5 cm long inside [6]. Ovoid or ellipsoid, 8-15 mm long, pink, turning dark red-purple or black when ripe. Seed 1, ellipsoid. Flowering March-April (May), fruiting June-July (August) [8,26]. Flowers pollinated by honey bees, flies and wind. On sites exposed to NE winds, fruits ripen mid-August to mid-September. Birds, squirrels and humans are the predominant consumers and spreaders of the seeds [26].

I. Wood properties: The medium to heavy weight Syzygiums are combined into a trade group called Kelat. Due to the mixture of different species the specific gravitiy varies over a large range from 450-520 kg/m³(medium weight) to 925-1100 kg/m³(heavy weight) at 15% m.c. The fruit-bearing species are not traded as wood and whenever one of their trees dies they are processed locally. The heartwood of S. cumini is reddish-grey or reddish-brown. It is relatively hard and to a certain extent durable [1]. The wood is pink and hard and fine-grained [8,1].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : S. cuminii is native to the subtropical Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Australia, where it is also widely cultivated. The tree was introduced from India and tropical Asia to southern Africa for its

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

edible and attractive purple-red fruits [26].

3

Widely distributed in the Indo-Malayan region, in Laos, Vietnam, northern Thailand [8]; In Asia in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia-Sumatra, Philippines; Oceania, Australia, French Polynesia, Africa-Madagaskar, Kenya, Caribbean, Florida, Southern Brazil [12]. Presently cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics.[6]. S. cumini is found in dipterocarp forest. [1]. Widespread in many types of forest, occurs in open and semi-open deciduous or evergreen forest, conifer-broadleaved mixed forest or as individuals in grasslands.[8] Fairly common especially in hill evergreen forest of northern Thailand [5].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : A gregarious species of tropical and hot subtropical regions, especially along rivers and in wet, lowlying places [1]. Grows on riverbanks in the tropical lowlands, best up to 600 m elevation a.s.l. Will not bear fruit above this altitude but can grow up to about 1800 m altitude and produce timber. Syzygium cumini grows well with 1000 mm/m² annual precipitation or more and a distinct dry season, but can withstand prolonged flooding. [6]. The altitude ranges from 0-1100 m a.s.l. [8] but may reach 1800 m [12], annual precipitation in the range of 500 to 4000 mm/m² in summer, average annual temperature 25-27 ºC. Soils of medium to heavy texture, drainage mainly free but may be temporarily impeded and water-logging for a limited time is tolerated; soils in the acid to neutral range, may be shallow and slightly sodic or saline[12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Occurs on a variety of soils, lateritic, sandy alluvia, marl and oolitic limestone. It can grow on rocky soils provided the rainfall is sufficient. With so many varieties it is likely that there are some exhibiting salt tolerance [1]. S. cumini occurs on dry yellow-red ferralitic soils [7], commonly on deep, rich, welldrained soils [26].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Suitable for exterior joinery and carpentry,exterior fittings, fences, railway sleepers containers, pallets, wood ware, wood carvings, wood based materials [12]. It is also used for bridge and boat building. Suitable pieces are used in guitar making and for other musical instruments. S. cuminii wood has a specific gravity of 0.77 and burns well, giving off about 4 800 kcal/kg, it makes excellent firewood and charcoal [1,7,8,26]. The wood is durable in water, resistant to termites, and although difficult to work, it saws and machines well and is used for construction, boat building, commercial tea and chest plywood, agricultural implements, tool handles, cart wheels, well curbs and troughs, sleepers, furniture and as props for shafts and galleries in mines [26]. [Non-Wood]: The slightly acid and adstringent, ripe fruit is eaten fresh or made into juice, jelly or wine

in Java below 300 m elevation. Large specimen grow in Florida and trials are undertaken in the Mediterranean region, particularly in Algeria [1]. Numerous varieties have large tasty fruit but too often the berries are small and of poor taste. The oblong seeds are strongly astringent and slightly bitter [1]. Bark of S. cuminii has served in tanning and yields a brown dye that has been used in colouring fishnets. Leaves can be used as fodder. The abundant nectar of the flowers provides a rich feeding base for honey bees. The bark can be used for dyeing but also for medicinal purposes together with the seeds [6]. A juice prepared from the leaves is used to treat dysentery and for cleaning external wounds, locally also for the treatment of light forms of diabetes [8]. The tree is also grown as a shade tree in coffee plantations [6]. The abundant foliage of S. cuminii trees produces good shade, which has been used to shelter coffee trees, chicken yards and livestock pastures. When closely planted in rows, trees make good windbreaks. S. cuminii is successfully planted in waterlogged areas. Ornamental: S. cumini is one of the most popular ornamental avenue trees in India. Trees planted close together and topped regularly form a dense hedge. S. cuminii is grown advantageously with banana, coffee and cocoa [26].

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[6, 19]. The fruit is edible but seldom sold on local markets [7]. The best forms are presently cultivated

4

The bark of some species has been used for dying or tanning materials. The bark, roots, young shoots, leaves and fruit are used in local medicine. The flower buds of S. aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry, known as cloves, yield an aromatic spice [16].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : S. cumini has never been tested in plantations[1]. Trees should be spaced between 12 and 14 m if planted as ornamentals and 6 m apart if for a windbreak. S. cuminii is a fast-growing tree, and seedlings may reach a height of 4 m in only 2 years. Trees may become serious pests in pastures [26] and S.cumini is consired a pest in the state of Florida [9,25]. The tree coppices remarkably well; vigorous shoots are produced in large numbers from small and large stumps alike. Coppice stands along streams have been reported that grew to 4.6 m in 4 years; more than 30 shoots were produced on 1 stump, half of which were dominant. The plants are also vigorous after pruning, and weeding has a marked effect on the growth and vigour of seedlings. S. cuminii tolerates shade, especially in the younger stages when dense masses of young plants can be found coming up under moderate shade in forests. It is susceptible to browsing damage. Chemical control of pests is recommended to control caterpillars.

Q. Propagation : Seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant; seeds germinate well when fresh, but viability is lost within 2 Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

weeks of open storage at room temperature. On average there are 1 200-1 800 seeds/kg. The seeds

5

germinate well when fresh, but lose viability quickly. Propagation is normally by seed or by budding. Recommended spacing for fruit orchards is 12 m to 14 m [1]. Natural reproduction of the plant is encouraged by fire protection. In the sapling stage, it thrives best in the open, when all overhead shade should be removed. S. cuminii is artificially propagated by direct sowing, seedlings, air-layering, inarching, grafting, stump planting, budding, and it can be rooted from cuttings. No presowing treatment of seed is necessary. Freshly collected seeds are normally sown at a depth of 2-2.5 cm during the rainy season and germinate in 2-4 weeks at a rate 20-90%. Plants are pricked out when 69 months old into beds 30 x 30 cm. For development of seedlings, moisture is even more important than shade, as seedlings in the sun develop well, provided the soil is kept moist, but seedlings in the shade die if the soil is dry. Seedlings are somewhat frost tender, particularly on grassy ground, where they are frequently killed back. Sapling growth is faster than seedling growth. Seedlings 1-3 years old can be planted out without any difficulty [26].

R. Hazards and protection : Not an endangered species, quite to the contrary, in many countries it has become a weed because of its rapid dispersal and growth (see the remark under V. Miscellaneous) [9]. S. cuminii is susceptible to attack by several diseases: white spongy spot, leaf spot and tar-pot-like lesions on leaves. Sooty moulds, leaf-eating caterpillars, scale insects and white flies also attack trees [26].

A number of insects and fungi damaging to Syzygium cumini have been identifed in India. Among the insects it is Apotomorhinus cribratus; Batocera rufomaculata, Curculio c-album, and Meridarchis reprobata. Degrading fungi are Botryotinia fuckeliana, Fomes caryophylli, Trametes corrugata, parasitic are Loranthus sp., Parotis marginata, Helicotylenchus indicus, andSitophilus rugicollis. The extent of damage and the success of control measures is unknown [12]. In Indonesia the following noxious insects have been observed: Agyroploce mormopa, a tip-boring caterpillar on S. polyanthum;Coccus viridus, feeding on the sap;Acarina mites and Alcides patruelis, larvae living in the shoots and beetles gnawing holes in th tender parts of the shoots. Termites can be a serious pest of young seedlings; other pests include the red tree ant and a coccid, Saissetia eugeniae [16].

S. Conservation : T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native to subtropical Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, Malesian region and Australia. Presently cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics (introduced) [6].

V. Miscellaneous4 : S. cumini has become invasive and has been declared an undesirable species in Florida, USA, but also in parts of other countries [9]. (Syzygium cumini has been introduced to many different places

has the ability to form a dense cover, excluding all other species. This characteristic has allowed it to become invasive in Hawai‘i where it prevents the re-establishment of native lowland forest, and very invasive in the Cook Islands and in French Polynesia. This tree has not been evaluated for biological control, but vigorous efforts to exterminate it with herbicides are taking place in Hawai‘i [25].

W. Further readings5 : Chaturvedi AN, 1984: Assessment of Biomass Production. Indian Forester 110(8):726-735. Chandhuri AKN, Pal S, Gomes A, Bhattacharya S, 1990: Anti-inflammatory and related actions of Syzygium cumini Skeels seed extract. Phytotherapy Research 4(1):5-10; 24 ref. Clark WC, Tharman RR, eds, 1993: Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands: Systems for sustainibility. Tokio, Japan, UN University Press x+297 pp. Gupta RK, 1993: Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. xv+562 pp; 18 ref. Jackson JK, 1987: Manual of afforestation in Nepal. Nepal-UK Forestry Research Project. Khanna RK, 1991: Chemical examination of the essential oil from the leaves of Syzygium cumini Skeels. Indian Perfumer 35(2):112-115; 5 ref. Little EL. 1983: Common fuelwood crops. Communi-Tech Association, Morgantown, West Virginia.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

where it has been utilised as a fruit producer, as an ornamental and also for its timber. The jambolan

6

Luna RK, 1996: Plantation Trees. Plantation Trees xii + 975 pp.(ref at ends of sections). Mohammad M, Wickham LD, 1996: Compositional changes in jamoon (Eugenia cumini) fruits during storage. Tropical Fruits Newsletter No 18:3-4; 13 ref. Sagwal,SS, 1994: Trees on marginal lands: Afforestation techniques and systems. xvii+ 269 pp; 11 pp. of ref. Siddiqui MA, Alam MM, Saxena SK, 1988: Seasonal fluctuations of plant-parasytic nematodes associated with certain fruit trees. International Nematology Network Newsletter 5(2):22-23; 1 ref. Little EL. 1983 Common fuelwood crops. Communi-Tech Association, Morgantown, West Virginia.

Sultan Singh, Singhrot RS, 1984: Studies on the propagation of jaman Syzygium cumini Skeels).I. Effect of sowing depth on seed germination and seedling growth. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science 13(3/4):123-126; 2 ref. Sumana DAS, Banerjee, AK, 1995: Studies on Syzygium cumini seed oil. J. of the Oil Technologists´ Association of India 27(4):243-244;7 ref. Jackson JK, 1987. Manual of afforestation in Nepal. Nepal - UK Forestry Research Project.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

X. References:

7

1)

FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp. 6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp. 7) Lehmann, L.,Grejmans, M. and Shenman,D., 2003: Forest Trees of the Central Highlands of Xieng Khouang,Lao P.D.R. – A field guide. DANIDA-DED-NAWACOP, Vientiane-Laos. 246 pp. 8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201-349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands. 11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp. 13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp. 16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp. 19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston] A. Latin name

(s)

³

B. English name (s)

³

C. Synonym

³

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston [6] rose apple, malabar plum [6] Eugenia jambos L. [6], Caryophyllus jambos Stokes, Jambosa jambos Millsp., Jambosa vulgaris DC [20].

D. Other1

³

pomme rose, jambosier (French), poma rosa, jamun (Spanish); cham´pu (Cambodia); jambu air mawar, jambu mawar, jambu craton (Indonesia); chièng, kièng, (Laos); jambu kelampok, jambu mawar (Malaysia); thabiyu-thabiye (Burma); chomphu-nam dokmai, manomhom, yamu-panawa (Thailand); ly, bô dào,roi, gioi (Vietnam [2,6,8].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

Cm<Ús

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Source: [-]

1

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chumpu:sâ [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³ Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Myrtales Family: Myrtaceae Gunus: Syzygium Gaertner [8] Species: Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston [8] Source :[4 ;

11]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Small, evergreen tree 5-10 m high, broad, dense and deep crown. Bole generally twisted at base, diameter between 10 and 20 cm [1]. A small tree, 6-15 m in height and 20-40 cm in diameter [2]. An evergreen tree up to 10 m high and 50 cm in diameter, often branching low on the trunk, with a dense wide-spread crown; stem cylindrical, sometimes quadrangular when young, mostly twisted at base [6]. Trees up to 15 m high. Twigs slender, compressed or angular [2,8]. [Bark]: Brown, with numerous furrows, smooth between the furrows.[1]. Bark greyish- green [2]. Bark brown, smooth, but furrowed.[6]. Bark whitish grey or brown [8]. [Leaves]: Opposite, lanceolate, long acuminate, deep green, shining, with numerous transparent gland-dots, often covered with a "bloom", which gives them a darker appearance [1]. Leaves simple, opposite. Lamina stiff-coriaceous, oblong lanceolate or lanceolate, tapering at both ends, apex acuminate, base cuneate or obtuse, 10-20 cm long and 2.5-5.0 cm wide. Lateral veins 16-18 pairs, anastomosing near the margin. Petiole 1 cm long, often pellucid-dotted, fragrant when blooming [2,13]. Leaves 12-20 cm, base pointed, 11-14 pairs of side-veins, 1-2 marginal veins, twigs flattened or squarish [5]. Leaves opposite, oblong-lanceolate, 9-26 cm long and 1.5-6.0 cm wide, thin leathery, cuneate at base, pointed at tip, shiny dark green above, lighter green and glandular punctate beneath with 5-6, rarely 13 mm long leaf stalk [6,13]. Leaves narrowly ovate, 8-20 by 1.5-5.0 cm, index 4, base cuneate or obtuse, apex acute or acuminate, secondary veins 11-18 pairs, intramarginal vein(s) 1 or 2 [8]. [Flowers]: Yellowish-white or pink, scented, with 4 rather large sepals and petals. The scent

white, clustered in terminal or axillary inflorescence. Flowers large, 4-5 cm in diameter. Buds globose. Calyx 4-lobed, lobes semi-obicular, persistent. Petals 4, free, concave inside, gradually falling. Stamens numerous, free, exerted. Anthers oblong ovale. Ovary inferior, with a hollow at the tip, style curved and longer than the filament [2]. Flowers white or pale yellow, calyx cup 12-14 mm, petals 1517 mm, outer stamens 33-37 mm, style up to 43 mm [5]. Inflorescence a 5-10 cm long corymb arising from tip of twig or from leaf corners, 4-5 (-10) -flowered with large white to greenish-white, 5-10 cm wide 4-merous flowers with about 400 stamens up to 4 cm long [6]. Petiole 7-14 mm long. Flowers white or pale yellow, pedicel 3-13 mm long. Hypanthial cup 12-14 mm long, broadly funnel-shaped. Pseudostipe 4-6 mm. Sepals 4, semi-obicular, 5-8 mm long. Petals 4, free, obicular, 15-17 mm long, base thick, more than 200 gland dots per petal. Outer stamens 16-37 mm long, anthers elliptic, 1.01.2 mm long. Ovary 2-locular, ovules c. 28 per locule, style 27-43 mm long [8]. [Fruit]: Fragrant, yellowish, sometimes tinted with red, ovoid or globose, 3-5 cm diameter. A firm and only slightly juicy flesh surrounds 1-2 seeds. Maximum fruiting during summer, but flowers and fruit are present throughout the year [1]. Fruit a berry, subglobose or ovoid, 3-4 cm wide with persistent calyx, contains 1-2 seeds [2]. Fruits 5-6 cm, pale pink, juicy [5]. Fruit globose to ovoid, 2.5-5.0 cm in diameter, crowned by persistent 4-lobed calyx, whitish-yellow, sometimes pink-tainted, fragrant with yellow-pink flesh embedding 1-2(-4) sub-globose, brown seeds, 1.0-1.5 cm in diameter [6]. Fruit

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resembles that of roses. Flowers arranged in 4-5-flowered terminal corymbs [1]. Flowers greenish-

2

depressed, globose,3-6 cm in diameter, pale pink when ripe. Seed(s) 1 or 2 [8]. Flowers and fruit are present throughout the year [1[. Flowering April-May, fruiting July-August [2,8]

I. Wood properties: The dark-brown heartwood is heavy and hard. It is not durable under exterior use and is rapidly attacked by termites. It is a valuable construction timber provided it attains the right dimensions. It yields good firewood or charcoal [1].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Has spread from its origin in Malesian region to Indochina and 300 years ago to the West Indian Islands. Now it occurs throughout the tropics and has become widely naturalized. Occurs in China, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam [8] but also in South America and Africa.

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Originally a tropical tree but cultivated in the subtropics and up to 1200 m elevation where the climate is relatively wet [6]. S. jambos is a species of lower elevations. It grows well in wet tropical climate or moist environments as found along river banks [1]. It is a shade loving plant that withstands drought better then low temperatures [1].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

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not determined

3

M. soil and site conditions : Grows on any slightly acid soils including water-logged soils [6]. Thrives on on wet and deep soils near river banks; light-demanding when mature; elevation range up to 300 m[8];

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: Wood used for general implement manufacture and used locally in general construction provided it attains suitable dimensions, which is rarely the case. It is attacked by termites, but makes good firewood or charcoal [1,8]. The tree coppices rapidly after cutting to a stump and consequently yields a continuous supply of small wood for fuel [20]. [Non-Wood]: Fruit is sweet and delicious [2]; it is not so tasty and popular, and is mostly processed to jams and preserves [1,6); it is used as a setting agent because of its high pectin contents; it provides nectar for bees and is also planted as an ornamental tree [1]. The juice can be distilled to yield a high-quality rose-water, an essential oil, which is sold to the perfumery industry [6]. The bark is used for tanning and dyeing [6].

Young branches are flexible enough so they can be employed to make hoops for large sugar casks, and also are valued in Puerto Rico for weaving large baskets [20]. S.jambos is also an ornamental and bee-feeding tree ; in Vietnam it is used as wind-shelter and for dune fixation on the sea shore [2,8]. Care should be taken with medication prepared from the seeds. There are indications thatthey may have a poisoning effect. An unknown amount of hydrocyanic acid has been reported in the roots, stems and leaves. An alkaloid, jambosine, has been found in the bark of the tree and of the roots, and the roots are considered poisonous [20]. [Others]: In India, the fruit is regarded as a tonic for the brain and liver. An infusion of the fruit acts as a diuretic. A sweetened preparation of the flowers is believed to reduce fever. The seeds are employed against diarrhoea, dysentery and catarrh. In Nicaragua, it has been claimed that an infusion of roasted, powdered seeds is beneficial to diabetics. They say in Colombia that the seeds have an anesthetic property. The leaf decoction is applied to sore eyes, also serves as a diuretic and expectorant and treatment for rheumatism. The juice of macerated leaves is taken as a febrifuge. Powdered leaves have been rubbed on the bodies of smallpox patients for the cooling effect. The bark contains 7-12.4% tannin. It is emetic and cathartic. The decoction is administered to relieve asthma, bronchitis and hoarseness. Cuban people believe that the root is an effective remedy for epilepsy.

not included

P. Silviculture and management : Usually planted as a fruit tree in village and also in plantations [8] Propagation with seeds or layering. Germination strength of the seeds is high and seeds tend to germinate immediately after harvesting. Polyembryony has been frequently recorded. Seedlings grow in the shade but are progressively introduced to lighter conditions. During the early stages of growth it is essential that adequate shade is provided and that drying out due to sunshine is avoided. During the dry season it is often necessary to to water the young plants. recommended spacing is 5 m x 6 m, nevertheless growth is slow [1].

Q. Propagation : Species can be propagated with seedlings or vegetatively by layering (1). Most rose apple trees are grown from seeds, which are poly-embryonic (producing 1 to 3 sprouts), but the seedlings are not uniform in neither character nor behaviour. In India, vegetative propagation has been undertaken with a view to standardizing the crop and also to select and perpetuate dwarf types. In budding experiments, neither chip nor "T" buds would take. In West Bengal, air-layering is commonly performed in July and the layers are planted in October and November.

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O. Cambodian wood classification :

4

R. Hazards and protection : The rose apple tree has few insect enemies. It is prone to leaf spot caused by Cercospora sp., Gloeosporium sp., and Phyllosticta eugeniae; algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros virescens); black leaf spot (Asterinella puiggarii); and anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata). Root rot caused by Fusarium sp., and mushroom root rot (Armillariella tabescens) attack the tree [12].

S. Conservation : not a threatenened species

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : In almost all subtropical and tropical countries on moist ans acid sites, suitable for wet and deep soils near river banks; altitude up to 300 m.

V. Miscellaneous4 : A well-known relative is Syzygium aromaticum, is fdreid flower buds are the cloves , a highly appreciated spice with analgesic effects [9]. Main producers are the islands of Reunion, Zansibar and Madagascar [9].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

W. Further readings5 :

5

Guzman et al. (1996)

Verheij EWM,& Colonel, RE, Eds. 1991: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia No.2 Edible fruits and nuts.Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands Crane E, Walker P 1984; Pollination directory for world crops. International Bee Research Association. London, Great Britain Francis JK,1990; Syszygium jambos (L.) Alston. SO-ITF-SM 26, Rio Piedras. Institute of Tropical Forestry. Troups, RS 1975: Silviculture of Indian trees. ed.2,1,Government of India. Streets RJ, 1962: Exotic trees of the Britisch Commonwealth. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

X. References: 1)

FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.

2)

Nguyen et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.

6

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Tamarindus indica L.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Tamarindus indica L.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Tamarindus indica L. [2]

³

tamarind, tarmarind [2], Indian date, madeira mahogany, tamarind tree [7], Indian tamarind [8]

C. Synonym

³

Tamarindus occidentalis Gaertn., Tamarindus officanalis Hook. [4], Tamarindus umbrosa Salisb. [6]

D. Other1

³

tamarind (Trade name) [7] - tamarinde (S-Africa) [7] - humer, roka (Ethiopia) [7] - aradeib, ardeib (Arabia) [7] - amli, anbli, nuli, tentul, tintiri, tintul (Bangladesh) [7] - magyee, majeepen (Myanmar) [7] - tamarenn (Caribbean) [7] - kalamagi, salomagi, sampalok (Philippines) [7] - tamarinde, tamarinier (France) [7] - amli, anbli, imli, tamrulhindi (India) [7] - asam, asam jawa, tambaring (Indonesia) [7] - khaam, mak kham (Laos) [7] - mukoge (Uganda) [7] - asam jawa (Malaysia) [7] imli (Nepal) [7] - hamar, rakhai (Somalia) [7] - tamarin,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

tamarindo (Spain) [7] - mkwaju, msisi (E-Africa) [7] - amilam,

1

puli, puliyamaram (Sri Lanka) [7] - bakham, makham, somkham (Thailand) [7] - me, trai me (Vietnam) [7]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

GMBil Source: [1]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ arm pel [1], 'âm'pül, ampil, khoua me [8] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Leguminosales / Fabales

Family: Leguminosae / Caesalpinoideae [3] Source :[ -]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Large, evergreen tree up to 20-25 m [2] (-30 m [8]) with a 1-2 m [6] (2-3 m [2]) short and stout trunk of 50-70 cm DBH [2] (-100 cm [7], -200 cm [8]). It is slow growing but long-lived, with an average life span of 80-200 years. Crown densely foliaged, widely spreading and rounded. [Bark]: The bark is rough, fissured and greyish-brown. [Leaves]: Some trees can be almost leafless for a while, but normally they remain foliated. The leaves are alternate, compound, with 10-18 pairs of opposite leaflets. Leaflets narrowly oblong, 12-32 x 3-11 mm [6] (13 x 5 cm [8]), leaf stalk and leaf axis finely haired, midrib and net veining more or less conspicuous on both surfaces. Leaf-tip rounded to almost square, slightly notched. Leafbase rounded, asymmetric, with a tuft of yellow hairs. Leaf-margin entire, fringed with fine hairs. [Flowers]: Inflorescences lateral and terminal racemes, up to 13 cm [8] long. Flowers ca. 3 cm [8] long and fragrant. Outer flower leaves (=sepals) 4, unequal, up to 1.5 cm [8] long. Inner flower leaves (=petals) 5, the upper 3 well developed, cream coloured, pale yellow or pinkish with brown-red veins. Stamens (=male organs) 3. Pistil (=female organ) 1, up to 18-ovuled. Flowers emerge on the new shoots that mark the leaf change, but some trees flower later, even as late as February when the shoots have long matured. The flowers produce nectar and are probably pollinated by insects. A self-

[Fruits]: The fruit ripens mainly in June-September. In Thailand the fruiting season is DecemberFebruary, in the Philippines from May to December with a peak in August-October. Fruit (=pod) a subcylindrical, straight or curved, indehiscent pod with rounded ends, up to 14 cm x 4 cm [8] (10-18 x 4 cm [6]), up to 10-seeded, often irregularly constricted between the seeds. Outer fruit wall hard, greyish or more usually scurfy brown, with some strong fibrous threads inside. Middle fruit wall thicksyrupy, blackish-brown. Inner fruit wall thin, leathery. Seeds irregularly shaped, flattened diamondshaped, up to 18 mm [8] (16 mm [6]) long, very hard and brown and embedded in a sticky edible pulp. [2, 6, 7, 8]

I. Wood properties: The heartwood is dark purplish brown, hard to very hard and very heavy, durable and strong with a specific gravity of 0.8-0.9 g/cm³ and takes a fine polish. The sapwood is light yellow and liable to insect attack. [5, 6]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 30°N to 8°S [5]. T. indica is indigenous to the drier savannas of tropical Africa, but it has been widely naturalized in tropical Asia. It is now cultivated in many tropical countries, even on plantation scale in India, and is economically important all over South-East Asia. It prefers semi-arid

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

pollination results in seeded pods.

2

areas and wooded grassland, and can also be found growing along streams and riverbanks. It does not penetrate into the rainforest. [5, 7, 8]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : It grows well in an altitude of 0-1,500 m a.s.l. [5] (0-400 m [4]) in semi-arid to humid tropical climates with a bimodal summer rainfall of 350-1,500 mm/yr [7] (350-2,700 mm/yr [5]). It is also suitable for monsoon climates with more than 4,000 mm [8] rainfall per year where it has proved its value for plantations. A dry season of 0-3 months [5] is tolerated. The normal temperature range is 9-37°C [2] with a mean annual temperature of 20-33ºC [5] (-47ºC [7]). Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 30-36ºC [5]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 13-25ºC [5]. Young trees are susceptible to frost but the mature trees can withstand temperatures of -3°C [7] (0°C [5]) without serious injury and are more cold-resistant than mango, avocado and lime trees. It is wind- and drought resistant due to its extensive root system and cannot stand waterlogging. It also tolerates fog and saline air in coastal districts. In the wet tropics (rainfall > 4,000 mm/yr) the tree does not flower and wet conditions during the final stages of fruit development are detrimental. [2, 4, 5, 7, 8]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Tamarind thrives in well drained, acidic or alkaline soils but it can tolerate a wide range of physical site

3

characteristics. However it does not like heavy clay or very acidic or waterlogged soils. The tree is often associated with termite mounds. The following soil types are suitable: acid soils, alfisols, alkaline soils, alluvial soils, cambisols, clay soils, ferralsols,

grassland soils, gravelly soils, lateritic soils,

limestone soils, regosols, saline soils, silty soils, subtropical soils, tropical soils, ultisols, vertisols, volcanic soils. [2, 5, 7]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The very durable heartwood is regarded as a substitute for teak (Tectona grandis) in many applications. It is suitable for sawn or hewn building timbers, light construction, agricultural tools, chopping blocks, wheels, mallets, rice-pounders, oil presses, sugar presses, turnery firewood and charcoal especially for melting gold or producing gunpowder. "In India, T. indica charcoal was a major fuel for producing gas (gasogen) units for cars and trucks during World War II" [5]. [4, 5] [Non-wood]: The ripe fruit of the sweet type is usually eaten fresh, whereas the fruits of sour types are made into juice, jam, syrup, candy, various preserves and beverages. With sugar and water, the fruit

makes a cooling drink and is used instead of lime juice. The green fruits and flowers may be used for souring soupy dishes of fish and meat. Tamarind seeds are also edible after soaking in water and boiling to remove the seed-coat. Flour from the seed can be used for making cakes and bread. Roasted seeds are claimed to be superior to peanuts in terms of flavor. The seed oil (resembling linseed oil) is suitable for making paint and varnish. The over-ripe fruit is used to clean copper and brass perhaps because of acidity. There are several medicinal uses of tamarind: The bark is astringent and tonic and its ash may be given internally as a digestive against diarrhea. Incorporated into lotions or poultices, the bark may be used to relieve sores, ulcers, boils and rashes. It may also be administered as a decoction against asthma and amenorrhea and as a febrifuge. Bathing with an infusion of the boiled leaves helps against skin diseases, such as scabies. Young leaves may be used in fomentation for rheumatism, applied to sores and wounds, or administered as a poultice for inflammation of joints to reduce swelling and relieve pain. A sweetened decoction of the leaves is good against cough and fever. Filtered hot juice of young leaves and a poultice of the flowers are used for conjunctivitis. The pulp may be used as an acid refrigerant, a mild laxative and also to treat scurvy. Powdered seeds may be given to cure dysentery and diarrhea and is used as a vermicide. [4, 7, 8] [Others]: "The extended crown of the tamarind offers shade so that it is used as a ‘rest and consultation tree’ in villages. Because of its resistance to storms it can also be used as a windbreak. It should be considered, however, that T. indica is not very compatible with other plants because of its dense shade, broad spreading crown and allelopathic effects. It is thus more commonly used for firebreaks, as no grass will grow under the trees. T. indica can also be used as a living fence. The

roads and riverbanks." [7] [Ethnic uses]: "Since ancient times, in India and the Far East, members of the flora and fauna were identified with particular personalities of the Hindu pantheon and worshipped. Tamarind is such a highly sacred and worshipped tree. These beliefs and practices continue even today in certain sections of society, particularly among the rural folk and aboriginal tribes living in the forest. Nature worship and the faith of these peoples have helped to conserve many natural ecosystems in India. These people have preserved many forest trees such as tamarind and sacred groves are conserved in their original form" [7].

O. Cambodian wood classification : No Class. [1]

P. Silviculture and management : [Establishment]: Tamarind generally requires minimal care. It is treated in a similar manner as other fruit crops with respect to irrigation, manuring and crop protection. Improved fruit varieties are often grown as single trees. However, orchards have been established in Thailand, where intensive

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

evergreen habit and the beautiful flowers make it suitable for ornamental planting in parks, along

4

cropping is practiced. When establishing a pure plantation, spacing should be at least 13 x 13 m [8] (8-10 m [6]). Distance can be reduced with vegetatively propagated plants, as they do not attain the same size as seeded trees. Smaller trees are easier to harvest. Size-control measures include close spacing (about 500 trees/ha [8]) and pruning to rejuvenate the fruiting wood. A high water table prevents deep rooting and also helps to keep trees small. Also early crops limit the early extension growth. The growth of seedlings is generally slow with a height increase of 60 cm [5, 8] per year. The juvenile phase lasts 4-5 years [5, 8] or longer. At higher latitudes shoots grow mainly in spring, flower throughout the summer and pods ripen in the spring, the period from flowering to harvest is quite long (about 8 months until full maturity). Very little is known about the growth rhythm in the tropics. More or less incidental shoot growth continues through the rainy season (November-April) into the dry season, but in July-August the trees are virtually quiescent. [2, 5, 6, 8] [Management]: Young trees are pruned to allow 3-5 well-spaced branches to develop into the main scaffold structure of the tree. After this, only maintenance pruning is required to remove dead or damaged wood. The trees also respond to coppicing and pollarding. "In the Philippines, the fruits of sour types are harvested at 2 stages: green for flavoring and ripe for processing. Fruits of sweet cultivars are also harvested at 2 stages: half ripe or 'malasebo' stage and ripe stage. At the half-ripe stage the skin is easily peeled off; the pulp is yellowish-green and has the consistency of an apple. At the ripe stage, the pulp shrinks because of loss of moisture, and changes to reddish-brown and becomes sticky. If the whole pod is to be marketed, the fruit should be harvested by clipping to avoid

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

damaging the pods. Eventually the pods abscise naturally" [8]. [2, 5, 6, 8] [Yield]: The tree may remain productive until it reaches old age, generally yielding up to 150 kg/tree [6] or over 2 t/ha/yr [6]. Up to 170 kg/tree/year [8] of prepared pulp has been reported from India and Sri Lanka. 80-90 kg [8] is an average yield, corresponding to 8-9 t/ha/year of prepared pulp for 100 trees/ha. In the Philippines 200-300 kg pods per tree is considered a good yield. The lack of information on biennial bearing suggests that bearing is fairly regular. [6, 8] [Handling after harvest]: "Green fruits for cooking, and half-ripe and ripe fruits for fresh consumption are sold by weight in the markets. Ripe fruits for processing are peeled, fiber strands are removed, and then they are sold by weight in plastic containers. The fruit of sweet cultivars commands a much higher price than the sour fruit" [8].

Q. Propagation : Tamarind may be propagated by seeds as the common method, as well as by air layering (=marcotting), grafting (for improved varieties) and budding.

Outstanding mother trees are

propagated asexually. "Shield and patch budding and cleft grafting are fast and reliable methods and at present used in large-scale propagation in the Philippines, the best time being the cool and dry months of November to January" [8]. There are approximately 350-1,000 seeds/kg [7] which remain

5

viable for many months. Viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10ºC with 7-15% moisture content [7]. "Pretreatment involves soaking seeds in cold water for 12 hours" [6]. Another method is to pour boiling water over the seeds and let them cool, or to nick seeds with a knife (scarification) [2]. Germination is epigeous, and has a rate of about 90% in 40-50 days [6] (2 weeks after sowing [2]). Sees germinate best when they are covered by 1.5 cm loose, sandy loam or by a mixture of loam and sand. Seedlings should attain at least 80 cm before being transplanted to their final location at the beginning of the rainy season. However they are big enough to be planted out in the field within one year. "Budded and grafted trees are planted out to the field at the onset of the rainy season (May to June in the Philippines) at a spacing of 8-10 m" [6]. "The Institute of Plant Breeding in Los Baños, the Philippines, contains a germplasm collection (46 accessions)" [8]. [2, 5, 6, 7, 8]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "The most serious pests of the tamarind are scale insects (Aonidiella orientalis, Aspidiotus destructor and Saisetia oleae), mealy-bugs (Nipaecoccus viridis and Planococcus lilacinus), and a shothole borer (Pachymerus gonagra). Other minor pests in India include lac insects and bagworms. Beetle larvae cause damage to branches in Brazil, while in Florida and Hawaii beetles attack ripe pods. Termites attack the tree in China. Stored fruit is commonly infested in India. Larvae of the groundnut bruchid beetle are serious pests that attack the fruit and seed in India. In some seasons, fruit borers may inflict serious damage to maturing fruits causing a great reduction in marketable yield"

[Diseases]: Leaf spot, powdery mildews, a sooty mould, stem disease, stem, root and wood rot, stem canker, a bark parasite and a bacterial leaf-spot have been reported from India. [8] [Others]: The slow growing tree may also be damaged browsing animals. [2]

S. Conservation : No information available.

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : No information available.

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [Native]: Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[6].

6

[6] [Introduced]: Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Colombia, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Ghana, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Iran, Jamaica, Laos, Liberia, Malaysia, Mauritania, Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Togo, United States of America, Vietnam, Zambia [6]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Production and International Trade]: "Although production should be substantial, statistical records do not usually specify tamarind. The crop in India - the largest producer - was 250,000 t in 1964 and India also exports several thousand tonnes per year, mainly of seed and seed powder, but also some pulp. Export statistics in Thailand for the early 1980s range from 11,000 to 21,000 t of dried pods. In India, Thailand, Central America (Mexico: 4,400 ha) and Brazil the crop is to some extent grown in orchards; elsewhere production comes only from trees along roads, in field borders and in home gardens" [8]. [Fruit Properties]: "Ripe fruits have 40-50% edible pulp which contains per 100 g: water 17.8-35.8 g, protein 2-3 g, fat 0.6 g, carbohydrates 41.1-61.4 g, fibre 2.9 g, ash 2.6-3.9 g, calcium 34-94 mg, phosphorus 34-78 mg, iron 0.2-0.9 mg, thiamine 0.33 mg, riboflavin 0.1 mg, niacin 1.0 mg and vitamin C 44 mg. Fresh seeds contain 13% water, 20% protein, 5.5% fat, 59% carbohydrates and 2.4% ash. The acidity is caused by tartaric acid, which on ripening does not disappear but is matched more or

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

less by increasing sugar levels. Hence tamarind is said to be simultaneously the most acid and the

7

most sweet fruit" [8]. [Genetic resources]: "The greatest diversity of tamarind types is found in the African savannas. Selected material exhibits tolerance to drought, wind, poor soils, waterlogging, high pH, low pH and grazing. The Institute of Plant Breeding in Los Baños, the Philippines, contains a germplasm collection (46 accessions)" [8]. [Terminology]: "As the dark brown pulp made from the fruit resembles dried dates, the Arabs called it ‘tamar-u’l-Hind’, meaning ‘date of India’, and this inspired Linnaeus when he named the tree in the 18th century. Tamarindus is a monospecific genus" [6].

W. Further readings5 : Gunasena H.P.M. Hughes A. (2000) Fruits for the Future 1. Tamarind, Tamarindus indica. [7]

Hughes A. (1999) Fruits for the future: tamarind. Fact sheet No. 1. [7]

Morton J. (1987) Fruits of Warm Climates: Tamarind.

[7]

Parrotta JA. 1990. Tamarindus indica L., Tamarind. SO-ITF-SM-30. USDA Forestry Service, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.

Relwani L. L. (1993) Tamarind: A multipurpose tree for diverse environments. [7]

X. References: [1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations [2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational. 320pp. [3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. [4] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA. [5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM). [6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database – http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

[8] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Tectona grandis Linn.f.]

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Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Tectona grandis Linn.f.] ³

Tectona grandis Linn.f.

B. English name (s)

³

teak [1, 6], Indian oak, Bangkok teak, teakwood, teak tree [1]

C. Synonym

³

Jatus grandis (L. f.) Kuntze, Theka grandis (L. f.) Lam. [1],

A. Latin name

(s)

Tectona theka Lour. [1, 9]

D. Other1

³

teak (Trade name) [1] - teck (France, Italy) [2, 6] - teca (Spain, Portugal) [1] - Teak(holz)baum, Tiek (Germany) [7] jati, deleg, kulidawa (Indonesia) [1] - sagwan, sagun, saigun, thekku, saka, sak, tech (India) [1, 6] - sak (Laos) [1] - kyun (Myanmar) [1] - djati, dalanang (Philippines) [1] - sak, maisak (Thailand) [1] - c[aa]y t[ees]ch, gi[as]t[ij] (Vietnam) [1] segun (Bangladesh)- jati (Malaysia) [7] - saguan, teak (Nepal) [7] - msaji, mtiki (E-Africa) [7] - tek, tekku, tekkumaram (Sri Lanka) [7].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

1

émsak;¬éRB¦ Source: [2,6]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ mai sak (prei), may sac [11] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Lamiales Family: Lamiaceae Genus: Tectona Species: Tectona grandis

Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Teak is a medium-sized to large deciduous to semi-deciduous tree that usually grows 1630 m tall [5, 6, 7, 9] (16-40 m [2], even up to 50 m under favorable conditions in its native forest [10], 25-35 m, but rarely more than 34 m in height [4]). The bole is straight, cylindrical, usually deeply grooved and fluted up to 15 m long [7] below the 1st branches and buttressed at the base. It reaches a DBH of 60-80 cm [5] (100 cm or more [4, 7], 150 cm [9]). The crown is open with many small branches and quadrangular twigs which are covered with rusty star-shaped hairs. It produces a long, thick taproot. As the tree grows, the tap root may persist or disappear and numerous strong lateral roots are formed up to 15 m [7] from the stem often no deeper than 50 cm [7]. [Bark]: The bark is soft yellow-grey to brown, longitudinally splitted into small scales that peel off. The inner bark is 8 mm thick [5] with a red, sticky sap and fibrous. [Leaves]: The leaves are simple, opposite and rich green. Mature leaves are broadly egg-shaped, or rounded, 20-60 cm long and 20-40 cm wide [5] (16-60 x 12-40 cm [9], about 30 x 20 cm [7], up to 75 cm or 30 inches long [5]) rough but hairless above and covered with soft yellowish hair below, especially on young leaves. The leaftip is pointed and the leafblade has 30-60 pairs [5] of secondary veins which are parallel aranged. The leafstalks (=petioles) are 2.5-5 cm long [5] (1-5 cm [9]), with star-shaped hairs and narrowly winged. "In seasonal climates, T. grandis is deciduous, while trees grown in non-seasonal climates are semi-deciduous. The very large, 4-sided leaves are shed for 3-4

[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=large erect and airy panicle) consists of opposite trichasial flowerheads, is up to 50 cm long [9] (40 x 35 cm [1]) and is "found on the topmost branches in the unshaded part of the crown" [7]. Flowers are bisexual, about 8 mm [7] small with 5-6 inner flowerleaves (=petals) [9], dull-white and fused into a tube, shorter than the 5-lobed calyx [9] which is hairy and red-glandular outside. Bracts are pointed to spear shaped or elliptic, unstalked up to 15 x 4 mm [9, 10]. Each flower contains 5-6 stamens (=male organs) [5, 9], slightly directed outward and attached on the base of the corolla [9]. The ovary (=female organ) is conical, densely hairy with a short style (as long as stamens and a bifid stigma. Flowering season is January-March [5] (June to August or September [1], May to July [9]). "The teak inflorescence contains a few thousand flowers buds, 1-3 of them bloom each day. Anthesis (=flower expansion) for the entire inflorescence occurs over 1-2 months. Flowers are weakly protandrous (=pollen-release before the stigma becomes receptive) and pollen is shed within a few hours of flowers opening. Peak receptive period is between mid morning and early afternoon; after this time the pollen viability gradually decreases. Teak is insect-pollinated maily by bees (Ceratina spp) black and horse flies. They travel among inflorescences and trees. Most tend to forage and stay on the same tree for long periods. Natural open pollination resulted in only 1.3% (0.4-5.1%) of flowers developing into fruits" [1].

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months during the later half of the dry season, leaving the branchlets bare" [7].

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[Fruit]: Fruiting season is April-August [5] (November-January [1, 9]) when fruits fall gradually. The fruit (=drupe) is green when young, and yellow to light brown when mature, globe-shaped and densely hairy, having a diameter up to 1.5 cm (0.6 inches) [10] (2 cm diameter [5]) contained in an enlarged calyx [10]. Each fruit possesses 4 valves, but generally only develops 1-3 seeds [10] wich contain a bland fatty oil. [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: The sapwood of Tectona grandis is yellowish or whitish, while the heartwood is olive-green when freshly cut, turning golden brown, brownish yellow or dark yellow upon seasoning. The wood is moderately strongly aromatic, hard and heavy with a density of 0.48-0.61-0.75-0.85 g/cm³ at 12% moisture content [1]. It is strong with gross but fine and straight grains. "The constituents include calcium phosphate, silica (which dulls cutting blades) and ammonium and magnesium phosphate. Resin is also present" [6]. The heartwood has a high concentration of strong smelling essential oil making it immune to termite and insect attack for very long periods if not splitted or curved. It is, however, not always immune to fungal damage (rot). The sapwood is susceptible to termites and therefore not durable. The wood combines more outstanding qualities such as weathering resistance, lightness with strength, attractiveness, workability and seasoning capacity without splitting, cracking, warping or materially altering shape. It is relatively easy to saw and work with and can be finished to a fair surface and takes polish well. "It can be peeled on a rotary lathe to produce excellent plywood and sliced veneers. It can be kiln-seasoned equally easily, but care must

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be taken to avoid discoloration of the wood due to surface oxidation" [1].

3

[1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: Naturally it can be found between 9°N and 25° 30'N [1] (10°N and 25°N [10]). "Long established plantations now extend from 28°N to 18°S" [12]. T. grandis is indigenous to the South Asian and the Southeast Asian region, originating from Thailand, Myanmar and India. It was early found in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia and Sri Lanka, however it does not naturally occur in Malaysia. Today it is grown throughout the tropics and is most extensively cultivated in all of southern Asia than any other tree species. "In Vietnam this species has been planted from the beginning of the 20th century and has now become a commonly planted tree species in many provinces" [5]. Generally it can be found in moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests and mixed forests. In Cambodia this species grows in the dense forests, especially in the southern provinces. "It is often a dominant member of a mixed deciduous forest, where its main associates are Xylia spp., Afzelia xylocarpa, Terminalia spp. and Lagerstroemia spp. The forest floor is often covered with bamboo. T. grandis generally occurs scattered but can form almost pure stands under favourable conditions" [7]. [1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12]

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : "T. grandis grows between sea level in Java, East and West Africa and Trinidad up to 1,200 m elevation in central India" [12]. It naturally occurs only in monsoon climate with an average rainfall of 1,300-2,500 mm/year [5] (1,500 and 2,000 mm/year [1], 1,200-2,500 mm/yr [7]) and a significant difference between the wet season and the dry season which can last for 3 to 6 months [1]. However, it grows well under an extreme variety of site conditions with rainfall as low as 510 mm/year [1] (600 mm [7]) and as high as 5,080 mm/year [1] (4,000 mm [7]). "Dry deciduous forests containing teak (e.g. in India at annual rainfall of about 800 mm) can often be found adjoining arid thorn scrub belts, while deciduous moist forests (at annual rainfall of around 1,500 mm) with teak can be found near evergreen rain forests. Annual rainfall varies from 760 mm in India with 5-7 dry months to 2,500 mm (5,000 mm) and 3-4 dry months in Java. The most important teak areas of Myanmar are situated in regions where the normal rainfall is between 1,270 mm and 3,050 mm" [1]. The mean annual temperature is between 210C and 280C [10], with absolute minimum temperatures of 20C [4] (00C [1]) and absolute maximum temperatures of around 450C [4] (480C [1]), but the optimum range is between 16°C and 40°C [12]. T. grandis can also be found in regions with slight frost [1]. However, other sources ([5]) mention a poor cold-tolerance with seedlings that cannot tolerate frost. Teak is lightdemanding, even when young and tolerant to forest fire. Especially young plants show a remarkable capability to recover after fire. [1, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

M. soil and site conditions : Generally, T. grandis grows best in deep, well-drained, well-ventilated, fertile alluvial-colluvial soils with a high oxygen content, a neutral pH (6.5-8 [7]) and a relatively high calcium and phosphorous content. "The quality of growth, however, depends on the depth, drainage, moisture status and the fertility of the soil" [7]. It can also be found on porous sandstone, limestone, granites, schists and other metamorphic rocks but remains stunted on quartzite or hard, metamorphosed sandstone. However, various teak provenances grow in widely varying soil types on a variety of geological formations. "Teak from northeastern Thailand will survive in nearly pure calcium soils; in northwestern Thailand it tolerates heavy clays; in India it even occurs in poor lateritic soils" [4]. "Weaver's 1993 review indicates that the species will tolerate wide extremes of soils so long as they are adequately drained. Recent studies of plantation growth in the Kilombero Valley of Tanzania suggests that good growth can also occur on lateritic clay soils with a fairly high watertable so long as the water is moving. However, there is consensus that shallow, waterlogged or compacted soils and hardpans give poor growth, as do low availability of calcium, magnesium or phosphorous. Growth is slower at higher altitudes and on steep slopes." [1]. Suitable soil types include acid soils, alfisols, alluvial soils, colluvial soils, ferralsols, gravelly soils, lateritic soils, red soils, tropical soils, ultisols and vertisols. [1, 4, 7, 9]

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No information available.

4

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: T. grandis is a well-known multi-purpose timber and one of the most valuable timbers in the world. It is the most important furniture wood in India where it traditionally has been used as the standard for comparing the quality of other timbers. The wood is used for fuelwood, round wood, transmission poles, posts, stakes, piles, pit props, building poles, roundwood structures, sawn or hewn building timbers, for heavy construction, beams, for light construction, carpentry/joinery, flooring, wall paneling, shingles, engineering structures, bridges, hydraulic works, railway sleepers, containers, pallets, crates, boxes, cases, tanks, vats, cooperage, industrial and domestic woodware, tool handles, brushes, cutlery, toys, musical instruments, sports equipment, wood carvings, turnery, marquetry, furniture, veneers, boats, vehicle bodies, wood based materials, plywood and wood extractives (including oil). "Sawdust from teakwood is used as incense in Java; the dust, however, may irritate the skin" [7]. [1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12] [Non-wood]: Many parts of T. grandis have a variety of uses. "The leaf, bark, root, flower, fruit, and sawdust have all been found useful" [1]. Leaves are used for wrapping and packing fresh meat and fishes and also for thatching huts. "They are also used for making medium strong boards through thermoplaticization and processing" [1]. They contain yellow or red dye recommended for dyeing silk, wool and cotton. Root bark is also used for dying mattings to a yellowish-brown color. "The bark is also a good source of oxalic acid" [1]. There are also countless applications in traditional Asian medicine: Flowers are used to treat biliousness, bronchitis and urinary disorders. Both flowers and seeds are considered diuretic. "An oil prepared with tender shoots is used against scabies in children" Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[1]. Leaves are used as purgative, extracts of leaves are reported to be effective against

5

mycobacterium tuberculosis, treat bleeding of laryx, trachea, bronchi, or lungs, and sore throat. The bark is an astringent, and also useful against bronchitis. "The oil extracted from the roots is used to treat eczema, ringworms and inflammation" [6]. The oil extracted from the seeds promotes hair growth. "A black liquid tar distilled from the heartwood is applied to sores in cattle" [1]. The charred wood soaked in poppy juice is made into a paste and used to cure swellings of the eyelids. A wood tar paste is also made from powdered wood by putting it into hot water having effectiveness in relieving headaches, tooth aches, reduce inflammation or eruptions of the skin and digestant. "The kernels yield about 40% fatty oil (about 2% in the seeds). Various compounds have been isolated from the wood, bark, root and leaves. Tectoquinone present in the wood is primarily responsible for the termite resistance property. Activated charcoal can be prepared from saw dust. Lapachol, a naphthoquinone isolated from the heartwood was reported having an uterotrophic effect in mice" [1]. [1, 2, 6, 9] [Others]: The tree is commonly used as an ornamental tree along roads and parks and for landscaping due to its large leaves and spreading flower clusters. It is a component of many agroforestry systems like intercropping systems or the 'Taungya System'. Other uses include reforestation, shade- and shelter-tree, soil and water conservation.

[3, 7, 9, 10]

O. Cambodian wood classification : 1st class [2, 8]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Tectona grandis is a strongly light demanding pioneer tree species with a long life span that can be found in moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests and mixed forests. In Cambodia this species grows in the dense forests, especially in the southern provinces. "It is often a dominant member of a mixed deciduous forest, where its main associates are Xylia spp., Afzelia xylocarpa, Terminalia spp. and Lagerstroemia spp.. The forest floor is often covered with bamboo. T. grandis generally occurs scattered but can form almost pure stands under favourable conditions" [7]. Silvicultural techniques are well established and documented. [1, 5, 7] [Natural regeneration]: Natural regeneration of this very light-demanding species is intolerant to shade and requires complete overhead light. It is particularly abundant in forests exposed to fires and often occurs in patches. Young trees may react particularly sensitively to interspecies competition and develop poorly. "In contrast to other pioneer species, T. grandis is able to persist and dominate and to naturally regenerate towards the climax phase of succession in most parts of its natural range" [7]. "Periodic ground fires seem to have a favorable effect, since they increase germination and inhibit competing ground flora" [4]. T. grandis seedlings are however sensitive to severe droughts. "It grows

requires freedom on all sides for proper development. T. grandis coppices and pollards vigorously and growth of coppice and pollard shoots is rapid. It does not produce root suckers. It is susceptible to frost damage but it has such remarkable powers of coppicing that if a frost-bitten plant is cut back, it may send up a shoot which often gets above frost level and survives. "T. grandis coppices well and early growth is rapid. It also pollards vigorously" [1]. [1, 4, 5, 6, 9] [Establishment]: Teak is primarily cultivated in artificially established pure stands. Mono-cropping, however, can have an unfavorable effect on the soil like surface erosion occurring on slopes underneath fallen leaves. "Studies carried out in pure teak stands in the western plains of Venezuela indicate that logging reduces the cation reserves (especially Ca) so severely that the soil acidifies. Teak should therefore always be grown mixed with soil-enriching tree species. Various Leguminosae have demonstrated their suitability for this, especially Leucaena leucocephala or Acacia spp. Trials have also been carried out in Java with Shorea robusta and Morus alba" [4]. The initial spacing may vary considerably from place to place. A square spacing of 1.8 m x 1.8 m [1] is practiced drier areas, while "on good sites with rainfall above 1,500 mm a spacing of 2.5 m x 2.5 m or 2.7 m x 2.7 m produces rapid rate of growth and faster canopy establishment" [1]. In Cambodia the traditional spacing is 3 m x 3 m [15] whereas in Kerala State of India 2 m x 2 m [1] are used. If underplanting

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on some very dry hills in Deccan Plateau of South India, but reaches only a small size [1]. "Its crown

6

with Leucaena is planned, the rows are spaced 3 x 3 m to nearly 5 x 5 m apart [4]. As T. grandis plants are susceptible to weed growth, especially the grasses, weed control is very important particularly during the initial 2 to 3 years [1] of establishment. [1, 4, 15] [Management of natural forests]: "In natural forests, T. grandis has traditionally been managed under a selection system, in which fellings and regeneration are distributed over the whole area and the resultant crop is so uneven-aged that trees of all ages are found mixed together throughout. In the selection system, mature trees above the exploitation diameter, together with dead and dying trees are removed. The selection system is mainly practiced in Myanmar. In the Myanmar Selection System the selection diameter is 73 cm in moist forests and 64 cm in dry forests" [1]. [Management of plantations]: "In plantations, teak is managed under the clearfelling system in which the mature crop is clearfelled in one operation and subsequently replanted. T. grandis is a strong light demander and will suffer from crown competition; it grows best in even-aged crops, regularly and heavily thinned, particularly in the first half of the rotation. White reports that thinning in Thailand follows a pattern of early mechanical reduction of half the stand each time, and different thinning intervals are followed at different ages: 5 years in ages 5-20 years, 10 years in ages 20-40 years, 15 years in ages of 40-60 years and at 20 years intervals beyond this ( 4 times, at 5-, 10-, 18- and 28year intervals after planting [7]). There are usually 5 to 6 thinnings in Indian teak plantations and thinning ages vary in different states. Some examples are 6, 10, 18, 30 and 44 years in Andamans; 5, 10, 17 and 25 years in Andhra Pradesh; 8, 15, 25 and 40 years in Orissa; 4-7, 8-13, 15-20, 25-28, 36

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and 44-45 years in Kerala. The first thinning (and sometimes the second too) is a mechanical thinning in which the number of stems are reduced by 50%. The remaining thinnings are silvicultural. In the Caribbean and Central American region, the first and second thinning (mechanical thinning) are conducted when plantations attain heights of 8 m and 16 m respectively. Even though teak plantation technology under low input is well-known, productivity is often adversely affected by scarcity of superior propagules, delayed planting and sub-optimal after care. On the other hand, performance of plantations under high input management remains under-investigated. Depending on the site characteristics and management practices, rotation period varies from 30 to 150 years. The rotation is shorter when teak is managed under a coppice system, especially in drier localities. Rotation ages followed in Indian plantations vary between 50 and 80 years ("for production of high-grade timber in plantations are 50-70 years, in natural or nearly natural stands over 100 years" [4]). Centeno suggests a rotation of 25 years to 40 years, based on economic and silvicultural considerations. Most plantations in tropical America are managed with far shorter rotations, usually from 20 to 30 years, to give a mean annual increment of 10 m³ to 20 m³ per hectare. However, some of the teak planting companies in India have now arbitrarily set a rotation age of 20 years under high input management" [1]. [1, 7] [Growth and yield]: "Initial growth of the tree is rapid. At an age of 5 years, an average height of 13 m (5 m after 5 years, 3 m after 2 years [4]) and 10 cm DBH is not unusual; after 10 years, 16.5 m and 15

7

cm; after 20 years, 21.5 m and 23.5 cm. After 15 or 20 years, growth slows down. In stands of 80 year old trees, maximum height is about 45 m, with a maximum diameter of 75 cm. The average plantation yield in Java is 60-100 m³/ha, including thinning." [7]. "The volume increment culminates after 15-20 years; after the age of 50, further increases in value are due primarily to additional formation of heartwood" [4]. "The mean annual volume increment in teak plantations outside of tropical America ranges between 2.6 m³ per hectare in Bangladesh and 16.0 m³ per hectare in the Ivory Coast. The Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun, India, provides detailed information about growth and yield of teak in India under different site qualities. This includes the mean tree measurements and annual volume increments under different site qualities in India. The commercial volume table for teak used in Kerala State, India is provided by Nair" [1]. [1, 4, 7] [Agroforestry]: Tectona grandis is the classic tree species used in the original Taungya System where it is intercropped with upland rice. Intercropping with legumes like soy bean is also practiced resulting in a higher growth rate of teak and creating harvest of the bean for food. The soya stems, roots and leaves are added to the soil as fertilizer. Teak is also used as a support plant for growing pepper (Piper nigrum) vines. [4, 7, 12]

Q. Propagation : [Seed collection and storage]: Seed production in T. grandis generally starts after the fifth year [1] (year 5-6 [4]) sometimes as early as age 2 [4], but on unfavorable sites not until much later. However

"Widely varying figures for the number of seeds per kilogram are cited, but in general it is between 1,000 and 3,000 (1,500-2,500 seeds/kg [1], 800-2,000 seeds/kg [7])" [4]. "Most of the useful seeds (fruits without calyx) fall into the 9-18 mm diameter category" [1]. Harvest can take place after fruit drop but it is important to collect the seed from the clean ground by sweeping up before predators remove it and also of minimizing the effort expended on harvesting poor quality or inviable seed. "The best quality fruits are usually the last ones shed. Seeds collected from the forest floor are generally used to establish plantations" [7]. "If stored in burlap sacks under cool conditions (for transport and storage it is useful to remove the calyx by rigorous rubbing and winnowing), the seeds remain viable for up to a year" [4]. Fruits can also be dry-stored in gunny bags and sealed tins for up to 2 years [1]. "To reduce bulk in storage, the seed can be husked by rubbing it over a sieve. Another method is to load seed and large river gravel into a cement mixer. The seed can then be ‘floated’ off. Stumps, used for propagation, can be stored for up to a year. Seed Viability can be maintained for at least 7 years in hermetic, air-dry storage at 0-4ºC at 12% mc with no loss in viability after that period. Seeds can also be maintained for 10 years in hermetic, air-dry storage at 2ºC" [7]. [Germination]: Although treatment of teak seeds to promote germination is not necessary in some regions, a number of pre-sowing treatments have shown to improve germination. A general practice is to use fruits stored for a year after soaking them in running water for 24-48 hours [7] and let them dry on the following day. Viable seeds begin egigeal sprouting about 10-20 days but may take 3 months

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it is recommended that seeds be collected from selected stands with trees over 20 years old [4].

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[4] (2-3 months [1]). If it is necessary to use fruits from the same year, they should be subjected to alternate wetting then drying for 24 hours each for 14 days [4, 7]. Even fruits that have lain dormant in the ground for 30 to 40 years [7] have been known to germinate abundantly. "In Thailand the approach is also used of putting the seeds out for 1-2 weeks to let ants eat away the thick, leathery exocarp. By subsequently soaking the seeds briefly and allowing them to dry, the germination percentage can be additionally increased" [7]. "Another method is to char (or half burn) the fruits by covering them with a thin layer of grass and lighting it" [1]. The germination rate is low, usually less than 50% [1], but sometimes up to 80% [1] (as a rule, it cannot be raised to more than 20-60% [4]) [Seed propagation]: Teak plantations are established by direct sowing, stump planting and bag planting. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: 1,000 seeds/kg. Planting spacing: 3 x 3 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 1,112. Rate of loss: 1,335 (20% in planting site), 1,484 (10% in transit), 1,855 (20% at the nursery). Germination rate: 40%. Purity: 90%. Total seed requirement: 5.16 kg" [15]. [Direct sowing]: "Direct sowing, the oldest method, is characterized by high mortality and slow growth. Seedlings kept in bags yield plants with a good root system in a short period of time provided care is taken to prevent coiling of roots in containers" [1]. "Direct sowing into the field at the beginning of the rainy season is often practised in Java" [7]. [Stump planting]: "Stump planting is the most popular method as it offers several benefits. Stumps may be produced when needed and transported over considerable distances while maintaining their viability. Moreover they are easier and quicker to plant, and subsequent growth is more rapid and

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vigorous" [1]. "For raising of nursery stock, individual seeds are planted about 1 cm deep in rows (15 x

9

5 cm). The young plants are raised in full sunlight with frequent watering ("although teak demands strong light, it prefers slight shading during the seedling stage" [7]). After about 8-10 months, when the seedlings have a basal diameter of between 1 and 2 cm, the stem is cut back to about 5 cm above the ground and the root to a length of around 20 cm (15-20 cm [1])" [4]. "For production of planting stumps beds are dug deeply, edged, seed sown and covered with earth and straw to prevent soil wash before the onset of monsoon showers. Alternatively, beds can be managed under irrigation. Stump planting in pits have shown better height growth. Preliminary field trials suggest that 'root trainer' plants can also be used for planting" [1]. By the end of the second vegetation period, such stumps attain heights of up to 3 m; they are therefore able to grow out of the reach of ground vegetation (especially Imperata cylindrica) without the need of special tending. Teak coppices from stump, and puts out numerous root suckers. The rooting time of these stumps is 8 to 15 days [7], and the survival rate of rooted stock is 90-100% [7]. "Various growth regulators such as indole butyric acid, indole acetic acid, naphthayl acetic acid, coumarin and boric acid stimulate root formation. The rooting response varies with the hormone, their concentration and the season" [1]. [Grafting]: "Both grafting and budding methods showed better results than branch cutting methods" [7]. Pre-budded teak stumps grown in pots are used for establishing seed orchards. The establishment rate is above 80% [1] under ideal conditions. The budded plants are hardened off before outplanting in the orchards.

[Tissue culture]: Tissue cultures have been perfected for T. grandis [1, 7]. "It is possible to produce 500 plants from a single bud of a mature tree or 3,000 plants from a seedling in a year. Tissuecultured plants possess better growth than seed-grown plants" [7]. However, "the field performance will depend on genotype selection and nursery care" [1]. [1, 4, 7]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: "Over 180 species of insects are reported to be associated with teak. Most of them are minor pests. Those which cause serious damage are white grubs in nurseries, sapling borer in young plantations, trunk borer in older plantations and two species of defoliators. In nurseries, white grubs (Holotrichia spp.) eat the seedling roots, causing wilting and subsequent death. White grubs can be controlled by treating the nursery beds with systemic soil insecticides. The sapling borer Sahyadrassus malabaricus is a problem in young plantations, with dense weed growth. It can be managed through regular pest surveillance and spot application of selected insecticides. The leafeating moth larvae Hyblaea puera (Hyblaea puera, Pyrausta machoeralis and others [4]) and the skeletonizer Eutectona machaeralis are recognised as serious pests. In young plantations in Kerala, India the teak defoliator causes repeated severe defoliation in the early part of the growth season of a loss of up to 44% of the potential volume increment. The skeletonizer, on the other hand causes defoliation later in the season and has no significant impact. Although biological control methods using native parasites and silvicultural practices were recommended in the past, it is not currently practised. Current emphasis is on the use of a naturally occurring nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) for control of the teak defoliator. The bee hole borer, Xyleutes ceramica is a serious pest in Myanmar and

cadambae causes similar problems in the southern states of India, but the incidence is limited to pockets where the trees are subject to repeated lopping. In Kerala, India, T. grandis is attacked by the trunk borer, Cossus cadambae. This results in the infection of the tunnels by the fungus Phialophora richardsiae and causes die-back of trees" [1]. [1, 4] [Diseases]: "Although diseases are not recognized as major problem in teak, some pathogens are of importance. In nurseries, bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas spp., leaf spots caused by Phomopsis and leaf rust caused by Olivea often cause serious problems. Pseudomonas solanacearum causes typical vascular wilt in India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Myanmar while Phomopsis tectonae is prominent in the Philippines. Lack of soil drainage and root injuries are predisposing factors of bacterial wilt. The leaf spots caused by Phomopsis tectonae in combination with Colletotrichum gloeosporioides result in defoliation and death of the seedlings. Rust caused by Olivea tectonae results in premature defoliation in nurseries and plantations in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Indonesia and Thailand. In nurseries, rust can be controlled by foliar spray of sulfurbased fungicides. In 1-to 3-year old plants Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease) causes death of terminal shoots in India and Indonesia. Several fungi have been reported to cause root rot and decay

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Thailand. It riddles the tree trunk with borer holes severely degrading the quality of wood. Cossus

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of standing trees in India, Tanzania, Dahomey, Nigeria and Papua New Guinea, but they are of local and minor importance" [1]. [Others]: Parasitic plants: "The mistletoe, Dendrophthoe falcata (Loranthaceae), is a major problem in plantations in almost all the teak-growing countries, especially, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Trinidad. It was found to cause up to 40% reduction in annual increment and mortality reaching 9% in teak plantations in Kerala, India. Lopping the infested branches before the flowering season is the usual method of management" [1]. Physiological disorders: "In high rainfall areas of India, where the water table is high, teak is affected by 'water blister', a physiological disorder characterized by exudation of a brown sap from the lower portion of the trunk. The sap is collected in a longitudinal split inside the trunk which opens at some point on the lower portion of the trunk. The exudation of the sap into the split is probably mediated through the xylem ray cells. Although the problem is not widespread, it is serious enough to cause concern in localities where it occurs. The loss is serious in terms of log quality, often resulting in rejection of affected timber for high quality veneer, boards or turnery stock. Animals: T.grandis is not as readily browsed or grazed as most of its associate species. However, heavy browsing can break soft, young shoots. It suffers from injury by various mammals such as rat, pig, deer and bison. The worst offender is the elephant which can ruin teak plantations" [1].

S. Conservation : This species has been classified as 'not evaluated' (NE [14]) according to IUCN (International Union

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for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees.

11

[14]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World Distribution] [Native]: India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh), Indonesia, Laos (Sayabouri), Myanmar, Sri Lanka, NThailand. [1, 2, 7, 9] [Introduced]: Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (Guangdong, Hainan, Hubei, Taiwan, Yunnan), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West

Bengal), Indonesia (Java, Sumatra) Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Myanmar, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam Oceania: Australia, Fiji Islands, U.S. Pacific Islands, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands Africa: Benin, Congo Democratic Republic, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea. Kenya. Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe Caribbean: Cuba, Honduras, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago, United States Virgin Islands South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela Central America: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama North America: USA (Florida, Georgia), Mexico [1, 9]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Terminoligy]: "The generic name comes from 'tekka', the Malabar name for T. grandis. The specific name, 'grandis', is Latin for 'large' or 'great'" [1]. [Variation and Breeding]: "The success of planting programmes depend not only on site quality but also on genetic quality of the planting materials. Although growth and yield of plantations can be largely improved through site selection, stem quality (i.e. straightness, branching, etc.) of the

trials clearly demonstrated the effects of provenances or seed sources on growth, stem quality and early flowering habit as well as performance of teak plantations throughout the teak growing region. Through proper selection of provenances or seed sources, growth and stem quality of trees in plantations can be improved up to 23% and 17%, respectively. The use of improved seed, i.e. from seed production areas, seed orchards and plus trees, is also essential in the improvement of growth, stem quality and other characters of the plantation. It has been estimated that by using such improved seed, growth and/or volume production gain of the plantation increases (from base populations) by 525%, depending on types of seed sources and planting sites. Racial differences in teak have been studied by several workers. Laurie (1936) recognised four different types of branching in teak and regarded it likely to be heritable. Reviewing literature on teak, White (1991) points out that the age of first flowering is under genetic control. Flowering at an early age results in forking and depresses further height growth. Citing a few important studies, Weaver (1993) reports that seeds of some provenances have a pronounced dormancy and that germination capacity improves on storage. In India, attempts to improve the planting stock genetically were initiated in 1961 with selection of a few plus trees based on a programme formulated by the Government of India. Since then about 1,000 plus trees have been selected in India and clonal seed orchards covering 1,000 hectares have been established. Selection of superior teak phenotypes from India for raising clonal seed orchards was based on 20 characters among which were height, girth, length of clear bole, stem form (buttressing,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

plantation is strongly controlled by its genetic make-up. The results of international teak provenance

12

twisting, and tapering), epicormic branching, pest and disease susceptibility and seed production. Environment may also influence the quality of teak. A preliminary survey of teak at 24 sites in India disclosed that variation in wood colour, grain and texture, leaf morphology, and flower and seed biology were associated with particular sites. In Thailand, the Teak Improvement Centre (TIC), in Ngao, Lapang, has been engaged in an improvement programme of the species since 1965. Provenance trials, selection and propagation of plus trees, establishment of seed production, seed and breeding orchards and clonal testing are the areas of work being carried out there" [1]. [Water consumption]: "Kallarackal and Somen, in a study on the water consumption by T. grandis in Kerala, found that a 12 year old tree, in leafy stage, consumes 83 liters per day. The water consumption during the dry season is negligible because of its deciduous state" [1]. [History of cultivation]: "Its natural distribution is in southeast Asia, from the Indian subcontinent through Myanmar and Thailand to Laos. Whether the 'natural' stands in Indonesia are indigenous or the result of early cultivation by Hindu settlers, possibly in the 7th century, is not clearly established. It is believed teak was introduced to Java 400-600 years from India. At the beginning of this century, T. grandis was introduced to both East and West Africa and to the Caribbean region, where 'Trinidad teak' has become particularly well known. For instance, it was introduced into Cote d'Ivoire in 1929. It is planted for timber or ornament and in botanical gardens. Plantations in southeast Asia have been established both within and outside the tree’s natural range. T. grandis was by far the most important export timber in Thailand until all logging in natural forests was banned in 1989. Natural stands in Thailand cover about 2.5 million ha, plantations 170,000 ha. In other southeast Asian countries, it is planted on a comparatively small scale and production is small. As an exotic, it is planted in Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam." [7]. "In Cambodia a plantation area of 2,136 ha of teak has been established between 1915 and 1972" [3].

W. Further readings5 : Alexander TG, Sankar S, Balagopalan M, Thomas TP, 1987. Soil in teak plantations of different site quality. KFRI Research Report, No. 45:iii + 17 pp.; 18 ref. [12]

Bakshi BK, 1976. Forest pathology: principles and practice in forestry. Forest pathology: principles and practice in forestry., 400 pp.; [Illus.]. [12]

Balasundaran M, Sharma JK, Maria Florence EJ, Mohanan C, 1995. Leaf spot diseases of teak and their impact on seedling production in nurseries. In: Caring for the Forest in a Changing World. Proceedings (Abstract of invited papers) IUFRO XX World Congress, 6-12 August, 1995 Tampere, Finland. Finninsh IUFRO World Congress Committee, IUFRO Secretariat, Vienna, Austria, 170. [12]

13

Banik RL, 1993. Teak in Bangaladesh. In: Wood H, ed. Teak in Asia. FORSPA Publication 4. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO, 1-10. [12]

Bedell PE, 1989. Preliminary observations on variability of teak in India. Indian Forester, 115(2):72-81; 12 ref. [12]

Bhat KM, 1998. Properties of fast-grown teak: the impact on end-user's requirements. Proc. XX IUFRO World Congress, Tampere, Finland. Journal of Tropical Forest Products, 4(1) (in press). [12]

Bhat KM, Indira EP, 1997. Effects of faster growth on timber quality of teak. KFRI Research Report 132. Peechi, Kerala, India: Kerala Forest Research Institute. [12]

Compendium. A report for the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Client Report No. 758. [12]

Bourdillon TF, 1908. The forest trees of Travancore. Trivandrum, India: The Travancore Government Press. [12]

Centeno JC, 1997. The management of teak plantations. Tropical Forest Update, 7(2):10-12. [12]

Chacko KC, 1995. Silvicultural problems in Management of Teak Plantations. Paper presented at the Second Regional Seminar on Teak, Yangon, Myanmar. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO. [12]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Booth TH, Jovanovic T, 2000. Improving descriptions of climatic requirements in the CABI Forestry

14

Chacko KC, Sankar S, Pandalai RC, Nandakumar UN, 1991. Effects of slash burning on soil properties, weed growth, taungya yield and growth of teak. Indian Forester, 117(4):237-248; 9 ref. [12]

Chalerempongse A, Boonthavikoon T, Chairuangsirikul T, 1990. Survillence of disease and insect damage of teak plantations in Thailand. In: Hutacharern C, McDicken KG, Ivory MH, Nair KSS, eds. Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantations in the Asia-Pacific Region. Bangok, Thailand: RAPA, FAO, 224-229. [12]

Chaudhari NR, 1963. Pre-liminary trial of pre-sprouted stump planting for artificial regeneration of teak. Indian Forester, 89(9):638-640. [12]

Chinese Academy of Forestry, 1992. Development of teak in China. In: Wood H, ed. Teak in Asia. FORSPA Publication No. 4. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO, 11-26.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[12]

15

Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Copra IC, 1956. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. New Delhi, India: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. [12]

Cook T, 1906. The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. London, UK: Taylon & Francis, Vol. 2:503-504. [12]

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1976. Wealth of India - Raw Materials Vol. 10. New Delhi, India: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. [12]

Day RK, Rudgard SA, Nair KSS, 1994. Asian tree pests: An overview. FORSPA Publication 12. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO.

[12]

Dymock W, Warden CJH, Hooper D, 1890. Pharmacographia Indica - Part III. London, UK: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. [12]

FRI, 1970. Growth and Yield Statistics of Common Indian Timber Species (Plains Region) Volume II. Dehra Dun, India: Forest Research Institute & Colleges. [12]

Ghosh SK, Balasundaran M, Ali MIM, 1984. Studies on the host-parasite relationship of phanerogamic parasites(s) on teak and their possible control. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 21:iii + 39 pp.; 74 ref. [12]

Gibson IAS, 1975. Diseases of forest trees widely planted as exotics in the tropics and southern hemisphere. Part 1. Important members of the Myrtaceae, Leguminosae, Verbenaceae and Meliaceae. Diseases of forest trees widely planted as exotics in the tropics and southern hemisphere.

51pp.; [8 pl., 1 tab.]. [12]

Goh D, Monteuuis O, 1997. Vegetative propagation of Teak. Tropical Forest Update, 7(2):13. [12]

Griffith AL, 1939. Investigations into the best age and diameter of stump to use when stump planting teak (Tectona grandis) in area having general West Coast type climate. Indian Forest Records (n.s) Silvi, 3(5):165-194. [12]

Hutacharern C, 1990. Forest insect pests in Thailand. In: Hutacharern C, McDicken KG, Ivory MH, Nair KSS, eds. Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantations in the Asia-Pacific Region. Bangok, Thailand: RAPA, FAO, 75-80.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Part 1. Important members of the Myrtaceae, Leguminosae, Verbenaceae and Meliaceae., xii +

16

[12]

Indira EP, Chacko KC, Krishnankutty CN, 1996. Studies on growth performance of teak nursery stock from genetically better sources for developing improved plantations. KFRI Research Report 102. Peechi, Trichur, India: Kerala Forest Research Institute. [12]

Kadambi K, 1972. Silviculture and management of Teak. Bulletin, School of Forestry, Stephen F. Austin State University, No. 24:137 pp.; 71 ref. [12]

Kallarackal J, Seethalakshmi KK, Bhat KV, 1992. Water blisters in teak. KFRI Research Report, No. 82:iii + 22 pp.; 17 ref. [12]

Kallarackal J, Somen CK, 1992. Water use of selected indigenous and exotic trees. KFRI Research Report 86. Peechi, Kerala, India: KFRI.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[12]

17

Kaosa-ard A, 1995. Overview problems in teak plantation establishment. Paper presented at the Second Regional Seminar on Teak, organized by Ministry of Forestry, Myanmar and FAO, 29 May-3 June 1995, Yangon, Myanmar. [12]

Kedharnath S, Mathews JD, 1962. Improvement of teak by selection and breeding. Indian Forester, 88:277-284. [12]

Keiding H, 1985. Teak, Tectona grandis, Linn. f. Seed Leaflet, DANIDA Forest Seed Centre, Denmark, No. 4:ii + 21pp.; 41 ref. [12]

Keiding H, Wellendorf H, Lauridsen EB, 1986. Evaluation of an international series of teak provenance trials. Evaluation of an international series of teak provenance trials., v + 81pp.; 21 ref. [12]

Keogh RM, 1987. The care and management of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations. The care and management of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations., 48 pp.; 59 ref. [12]

Khedkar MH, Subramanian K, 1997. Trials on raising Teak (Tectona grandis) planting stock in root trainers. Indian Forester, 123:95. [12]

Ko Ko Gyi M, 1993. Teak in Myanmar. In: Wood H, ed. Teak in Asia. FORSPA Publication 4. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO. [12]

Kumaravelu G, 1993. Teak in India. FORSPA Publication 4. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO.

Laurie MV, 1936. Seed origin and its importance in Indian forestry. Indian Forester, 62:18-22. [12]

Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Plantation trees., xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections]. [12]

Mascarenhas AF, Kendarkar SV, Gupta PK, Khuspi SS, Agarwal DC, 1987. Teak. In: Bonga JM, Durzan I, eds. Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry Vol. 3. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhaff Publishers. [12]

Mathew G, Rugmini P, 1996. Impact of the borer Alctrogystia cadambae (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) in forest plantations of teak in Kerala, India. In: Nair KSS, Sharma JK, Varma RV, eds. Impact of Diseases and Insect Pests in Tropical Forests. Peechi, India: KFRI, 304-310.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[12]

18

[12]

Mathur KBL, 1973. Teak bibliography.Titles, with s of important ones, of world literature dealing with Tectona grandis Linn. F. Teak bibliography.Titles, with s of important ones, of world literature dealing with Tectona grandis Linn. F., 320 pp.; 1506 ref. [12]

Moldenke HN, 1975. Notes on new and noteworthy plants. Phytologia, 31(1):25-29. [12]

Moldenke HN, Moldenke AL, 1983. Verbenaceae. Vol. 4. In: Dassanayake MD, Fosberg FR, eds. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. New Delhi, India: Amerind Publishing Co., 196-487. [12]

Murray CH, 1961. Teak and fire in Trinidad. Caribbean Forester, 22:3-4.

Nair NR, 1971. Commercial volume tables for the forest trees of Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

India: Kerala Forest Department.

19

[12]

Nair KSS, 1987. Life history, ecology and pest status of the sapling borer, Sahyadrassus malabaricus (Lepidoptera, Hepialidae). Entomon, 12(2):167-173; [4 fig.]; 7 ref. [12]

Nair KSS, 1988. The teak defoliator in Kerala, India. Chapter 14. In: Berryman AA, ed. Dynamics of Forest Insect Populations. New York, USA: Plenum Press, 26-289. [12]

Nair KSS, Sudheendrakumar VV, Varma RV, Chacko KC, Jayaraman K, 1996. Effect of defoliation by H. puera and E. machenalis (Lepidoptera) on volume increment of teak. In: Nair KSS, Sharma JK, Varma RV, eds. Impact of Diseases and Insect Pests in Tropical Froests. Peechi, India: KFRI, 257273.

[12]

Nair KSS, Biju Babjan, Sajeev TV, Sudheendrakumar VV, Mohamed Ali MI, Varma RV, Mohanadas K, 1997. Field efficacy of nuclear polyhedrosis virus for protection of teak against the defoliator Hyblaea puera Crauer (Lepidoptera: Hyblacidae). Journal of Biological Control, (in press). [12]

Nazma, Ganapathy PM, Sasidharan N, Bhat KM, Gnanaharan R, 1981. A handbook of Kerala timbers. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 9:iv + 260 pp.; 6 pp. of refs. [12]

Oka AG, Vaishampayan, 1981. White grub menace in teak nurseries in Maharashtra. In: Veeresh GK, ed. Progress in Soil Biology and Ecology of India. Bangalore, India: U.A.S. [12]

Pearson RS, Brown HP, 1981. Commercial Timbers of India, Vol. II. New Dehli, India: AJ Reprints Agency, 941-944.

Prasad R, Kandya AK, 1992. Handling of Forestry Seeds in India. New Delhi, India: Associated Publishing Company. [12]

Rajput SS, Shukla NK, 1984. A review of the classification of timber for different end uses. Timber Mechanics, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Delhi, India: Controller of Publications. [12]

Rama Rao M, 1914. Flowering Plants of Travancore. Trivandrum, India: Govt. Press. [12]

Rao YS, 1997. Keynote address. In: Basha SC, Mohanan C, Sankar S, eds. Proceedings of International Teak Symposium 1991. Thiruvananthapuram, India: Kerala Forest Department, 1-6.

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[12]

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[12]

Ryan PA, 1982. The management of Burmese teak forests. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 61(2):115-120; 4 ref. [12]

Sareen V, Jain S, Narula, 1995. Evaluation of oestrogenicity and pregnency interceptory efficacy of lapachol (2-hydroxy-3-(3-methyl-2 butenyl)-1,-4 naphthoquinone) in the mouse. Phytotherapy Research, 9(2):139-141. [12]

Sekhar AC, 1962. A note on some recent trends in Teak utilisation in India. Indian Forester, 2(2):29. [12]

Sen Sarma PK, Thapa RS, 1981. Recent advances in forest entomology in India. In: Ananthakrishnan TN, ed. Recent Advances in Entomology in India. Loyola College, Madras, India: Entomology Research Institute, 21-36.

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[12]

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Sharma JK, Mohanan C, Florence EJM, 1985. Disease survey in nurseries and plantations of forest tree species grown in Kerala. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 36:268 + vii pp.; Many ref. [12]

Sudheendrakumar VV, Mohamad Ali MI, Varma RV, 1988. Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus of the teak defoliator Hyblaea puera. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 51(3):307-308. [12]

Surendran T, Seethalakshmi KK, 1987. Vegetative propagation of some important tree species by rooting cuttings. KFRI Research Report 59. [12]

Teaknet Newsletter, 1997. Controlled hand pollination of teak., Teaknet Newsletter, 7:4-6. [12]

Tewari DN, 1992. A monograph on teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.). A monograph on teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.)., iii + 479 pp.; 4000 ref. [12]

Troup RS, 1921. The Silviculture of Indian trees. Vol. II. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. [12]

Varma RV, 1991. White grub damage and its control in teak nurseries. Proc. International Teak Symposium, Trivandrum (Cyclostyled). [12]

Venkatesh CS, Koshy MP, Chacko KC, Indira EP, 1986. Genetic improvement of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) in Kerala. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 13:iii + 21 pp.; [3 foldout tab.]; 18 ref.

Watt G, 1908. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Volume VI (Part III) Silk to Tea. Shahdara, Delhi, India: Periodical Experts, 362-363. [12]

Weaver PL, 1993. Tectona grandis L.f. (Teak). Bulletin. USDA, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. [12]

White KJ, 1991. Teak: some aspects of research and development. RAPA Publication, No. 17:iv + 70 pp.; 14 pp. of ref. [12]

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium 1998-2000. (CD-ROM).

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[12]

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[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[3] FAO: The State of Forest Management and Conservation in Cambodia [http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac648e/ac648e04.htm]. (Internet source)

[4] Lamprecht, H., 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ.

[5] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. Hanoi

[6] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

[7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database [httpwww.worldagroforestry.orgseaProductsAFDbasesAFaspBotanicSearch.asp]. (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[8] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).

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[9] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.

[10] Thames & Hudson, 2004, Tropical and Subtropical Trees.

[11] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[12] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

[13] Leang, Horn, 2006: Own observations.

[14] WWF - Tropical timbers available in FSC-certified wood: http://assets.panda.org/downloads/tropical_wood_images.pdf (Internet source)

[15] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom Penh

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula] ³

Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula[16]

B. English name (s)

³

Chebulic myrobalan, black myrobalan [16], beda nuts [12]

C. Synonym

³

Terminalia parviflora Thwaites, T. zeylanica van Heurck &

A. Latin name

(s)

Muell. Arg., T. tomentella Kurz [16], T.reticulata Roth, T. aruta Buch.-Ham. ex G.Don, [12]

D. Other1

³

sa mao chet (Cambodia); : sa mao tchet (Cambodia); chebulic myrabolan (Philippines; somz moox kh'ook (Laos); manja puteri (unripe fruits) (Malaysia); samo thai (Thailandcentral); chieu lieu xanh (Vietnam); myrobolan noir (French)

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

Rsm: Source: [-]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ srâmâ [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Myrtales Family: Combretaceae Gunus: Terminalia L. [16] Species: Terminalia chebula Retz. var.chebula [16]

Source :[11 ; 16]

H. Botanical characteristics : Terminalia chebula is divided into 2 varieties: var. chebula is a tree whereas var. nana Gagnep. is only a small shrub [16]. [General]: A deciduous, medium-sized tree, up to 10-20m high, 40-80 cm in diameter, crown layered. Branches and leaves resemble those of Terminalia catappa [2]. A medium-sized tree, up to 30 m tall, bole usually short, branchless up to 10 m; up to 130 cm in diameter [12,16]. [Bark]: Bark greyish with shallow, horizontal fissures, forming irregular rectangles, 3x4 or 3x7 cm. Inner bark 1.5-1.8 cm thick, exuding a reddisch adstringent sap. Young branches glabrous [2]. Tree with blackish bark [4]. Surface usually cracked with woody scales, dark brown. [16] [Leaves]: Leaves simple, opposite or sub-opposite, obovate 10-20 by 5-10 cm cuneate at both ends, margin entire. Leaf blade slightly thick, stiff, coriaceous, fine pubescent on young leaves, then glabrescent. Penni-nerved, lateral veins, 7-9 pairs, prominent beneath, with 2 very small glands at the top.[2] Broadly ovate, to ovate-elliptical, 7-15 cm x 4-10 cm, cuneate to slightly cordate at base, glabrescent, with 6-7 pairs of secondary veins, petiole 1-3 cm long.[16]. [Flowers]: Inflorescence is an axillary spike-raceme, near the branch tips, multi-flowered, 5-10 cm long, rhachis pubescent. Flowers bisexual, bracts triangular, 1-3 mm long, green-white. Calyx campanulate, 5-dented. Corolla absent. Stamens 10, in 2 whorls, 4 mm long, filaments 3 mm long.

mm long. [2] Flowers in an axillary or terminal panicle 3-7 cm long, calyx tube glabrous outside [16]. [Fruit]: Fruit an ovoid drupe, 3-4 cm long, 1.7-2.0 cm in diameter, apex acute, greenish with 5 longitudinal stripes. One hard seed. The fallen fruit with a scent of Citrus grandis seed. [2]. Fruit globose, to ellipsoid, 2.5-5.0 cm x 1.5-2.5 cm, glabrous, smooth or sometimes 5-angular or ridged [16]. Flowering from May to June, fruiting from August to September [2].

I. Wood properties: Wood of T. chebula has good quality, it is quite heavy with a specific gravity of 870 kg/m³ [2]. The timber is greyish brown and has a density of 880 kg/kg/m³ at 12% m.c. It is fairly durable in the shade or in water, but is less durable on exposure to direct sunlight. The wood is very difficult to saw, to season and to work [12,16,26]. The sapwood is sharply differentiated from the heartwood; it is yellowish-grey to grey, sometimes with a greenish tinge, whereas the heartwood is small, dark brown to reddish-brown, very hard and heavy to very heavy, with a specific gravity of 810-1050 kg/m³ (880 kg/m³ at 12% moisture content). The timber is strong and tough, diffuse-porous, with interlocked grain; texture medium fine to fine, sometimes with curly grain, durable only under cover [26].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Disc inside staminal whorl, 5-lobed, pubescent. Ovary inferior, glabrous, monolocular. Ovules 2, 1.5

2

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : A native species of Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Burma, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indochina Philippines, and southern China, but introduced to Peninsular Malaysia. It occurs naturally in teak forests, deciduous, and dry evergreen forests on free-draining clayey or sandy soils, up to an altitude of 1000 m a.s.l. [12]. In Thailand and Burma it is found together with teak. T. chebula occurs scattered in mixed deciduous forest, extending into forests of comparatively open structure and dry evergreen forest. It is a light-demanding tree, mixed with other species such as Terminalia sp., Lagerstroemia sp. and Pterocarpus pedatus in secondary or evergreen forests and at the boundary of Dipterocarp forest [2].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Terminalia chebula occurs scattered in mixed deciduous and dry evergreen forests up to 1000 m elevation a.s.l. It prefers a climate with ample precipitation of between 500-3300 mm/m² evenly distributed over the season, with a dry season break of 3-4 months. The altitudinal range reaching from 300-1500 m. Malesian species of Terminalia generally occur as elements of the canopy layer sometimes of the subcanopy layer, in evergreen, semi-deciduous or sometimes deciduous, primary and secondary forests. Most species prefer moist locations like swamp forest or periodically flooded riverine forest, but are also found in hill forest, in teak forest and even in dry mixed dipterocarp forest; some species are littoral (preferring beach areas). Terminalia is mostly found at lower elevations but few individual species may ascend up to 2000 m elevation. The climate ranges from everwet to

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

seasonal. The mean annual temperature lies approximately between 25ºC-35ºC [12,16), the absolute

3

minimum tolerated is given as >minus 1ºC. T.chebula tolerates drought and fire once established, but also short periods of frost at higher elevations [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : T. chebula tolerates light to heavy soil texture, no particular demands on soil reaction, presumably rather neutral than acid. Often found on free-draining, clayey or sandy soils, up to 1000 m elevation a.s.l. [16]

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: T.chebula is in first place appreciated for its tannin-rich fruit. In 1980ies most of the volume of chebula fruit havested came from trees growing in the wild. With on average 30% tannin contents, T. chebula is probably the tree species with the highest percentage of tanning compounds in its fruit [26]. The wood is used in construction, for furniture, pillars, beams, axles [2].Itis also in demand for cabinet work and construction [4]. Other applications are for furniture, carts and implements, building timbers,

posts, beams, industrial and domestic wood ware, wooden handles, also wood extractives, including oil [12,16]. [Non-Wood]: More important than the wood are the fruit, which are rich in tannin and are extensively used for tanning leather in India. The dried fruit-pulp has an average tannin content of 30-32% [19], but the content varies considerably with the place of origin. Poor samples may contain less than 20% tannin, good ones over 40% [26]. They are usually combined with syntans and with other vegetable tanning materials such as black wattle (Acacia mearnsii De Wild.), avaram (Cassia auriculata L.) and Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson. Chebulic myrobalan is used in the production of sole leather, and also in a last tannage after chrome tanning to give the leather weight and a fast colour. An extract is suitable for pretannage of cattle hides. A durable yellow dye can be produced from the fruits mixed with alum; a black dye and ink can be obtained by mixing the crushed fruits with iron.[16]. India holds a quasi-monopoly for tannins based on natural products. Of 100,000 t of annual production, 10,000t were exported in 1981. In the meantime synthetic products replace natural tannins in many applications. But natural tannins are still used in considerable quantities (40,000 t annually) e.g. by deep-drilling enterprises to reduce the viscosity of drilling slurry [19]. The preference for natural tannins is justified because of their superior capacity of imparting body and weight to different kinds of leather products [19]. Further highly technical and chemical information on the tanning processes can be found in the species data sheet of T.chebula of the World Agroforestry Centre [26]. The bark produces a gum and tannin used for dyeing fishing nets.[4]. Fruits are edible and have numerous medicinal applications.

India, Burma and Thailand [2]. There are numerous medical applications of the fruit, for example as laxative, stomathic, tonic, and alterative. They are often used in combination with emblic myrobalan (Phyllanthus emblica L.) and beleric myrobalan (Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb.). They show antibacterial and antifungal activity, and are used to cure inflamed gums and as a relief in asthma [26]. T.chebula is considered a suitable component for agroforestry landuse and even revegetation of marginal sites [12].

O. Cambodian wood classification : not included

P. Silviculture and management : Considerable experience is available in the silviculture of a number of Terminalia species, notably T. brassii. T. calamansanai and T. catappa, especially in the Solomon Islands. For establishing a plantation cuttings, air-layering and grafting are applied..

Q. Propagation : The following applies to the Genus Terminalia as a whole, but no all details apply to T. chebula:

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The fruit, called "Kha tue" in Vietnam, is used for the treatment of cholera, dysentery and cough in

4

Terminalia can be propagated by seed including direct sowing, by cuttings, grafting and wildlings. Seed is readily and severely attacked by insects and other animals, even before fruit fall. Nevertheless it should be collected from the ground, as seed still on the tree may not be fully mature. The number of seeds per kg of different species is very variable: for T. catappa about 500, for T. myriocarpa 8800-9900, for T. brassi up to 70,000. In general seed viability diminishes rapidly, with some exceptions. T. catappa seed remains viable for a long time and its fruits may be transported over long distances by sea water. The viability differences are considerable varying between 5-50% for T. alata, 25-70% for T. catappa and up to 50% for T.chebula. Seed of some species reacts to pretreatment like soaking in water for 24-48 hours, or by manual scarification, however, T. catappa seed has not been found to benefit of any pretreatment [16]. Covering of seeds or fruit in the seedbed is important for increasing the germination percentage. Light shade is generally applied during germination but should be removed after 1-2 months. Adequate moisture during germination is a prerequisite. Germination generally starts within 2 weeks after sowing and lasts for another 2-5 weeks. Seed of T. phellocarpa started germinating only after 3.5 months and the last seed germinated 7 months after sowing [16]. Terminalia chebula: The fallen fruits are collected and dried thoroughly first. Later the hardened flesh is removed. Fermentation of the stones gives the best germinative results, but clipping the broad end of the stone without damaging the embryo, followed by soaking in cold water for 36 hours gives good results too. Direct sowing is not advisable, because the risk of predation and because the seeds germinate poorly. In India, seeds are usually sown in boxes or nursery beds before the rainy season, covered with soil, and watered, done in the first or second rainy season. Shading is desirable in early

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stages in the nursery and after transplanting. The germination rate of T. chebula seed is up to 50%.

5

Propagation by cuttings is possible, but less successful than transplanting nursery-raised seedlings into the field. In the forest, regeneration is facilitated by creating small gaps in the canopy, and this should be supplemented by sowing seeds in the clearings [26]. Germination is epigeal, seedling develop a long, fairly thin primary root, a short and thick hypocotyl, and glabrous cotyledons with 3 prominent and 2 less conspicuous veins. The germinative power of the seed is poor. Viability of the seed is retained for about 1 year. Seedling growth is comparatively slow, with 10-20 cm height attained by the end of the first season. Rate of growth is slow in later stages too. The flowers appear together with the new leaves after the tree has been leafless for several months. Fruits ripen some 8 months later, and fall soon after ripening [26]. C

R. Hazards and protection : The tree itself does not suffer from any serious disease or pest, altough some defoliators have been reported. Howefver, fallen fruits are heavily predated by rodents and insects. The timber is attacked by borers [26]. Damaging insects have only been described for the Solomon Islands´ plantations, none for Indochina or Peninsular Malaysia.

S. Conservation : T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and southern China, Burma, Thailand, Indochina, introduced to Peninsular Malaysia [16].

V. Miscellaneous4 : T. chebula might be an interesting source of tanning material for South-East Asia. Because it is the fruit that yields the tannin, harvesting is not injurious to the trees, as is the case for many bark-yielding species. This species from mainland Asia is probably not suited to the climate of many parts of SouthEast Asia, unlike T. bellirica. However, as it has been grown for many years in the botanical garden in Bogor (Java), and as it has better tanning properties than the latter species, it might be worthwhile trying in cultivation after genetic improvement [26]

W. Further readings5 : Fenton, R., Roper, R.E. & Watt, G.R., 1977: Lowland tropical hardwoods. An annotated bibliography of selected species with plantation potential. External Aid Div., Wellington, N.Z. Min. Foreign Affs. 2) Whitmore, T.C. (Ed.) Tree Flora of Malaya, 2nd. edition. Vol.1: Malayan Forest Records no. 26. For.Res. Inst. Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN Berhad, Kuala Lumpur. Barthakur NN, Arnold NP, 1991. Nutritive value of the chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula Retz.)

Bhardwaj SD, Chakraborty AK, Joshi NK, 1993. Vegetative propagation of Terminalia bellirica Roxb. and Terminalia chebula Retz. by stem cuttings. Indian Forester, 119(5):360-366; 22 ref.

Chakraborty AK, Pandey ON, Bhardwaj SD, 1992. Propagation of Terminalia bellirica and Terminalia chebula by stem cutting. Journal of Research, Birsa Agricultural University, 4(1):99-101; 4 ref.

Kamal Sharma, Sanjeev Thakur, Badiyala SD, Sharma NK, 1995. First report on the propagation of Terminalia chebula Retz. through patch budding. Indian Forester, 121(8):760-761; 2 ref.

Misra KK, Jaiswal HR, 1994. Effects of indole butyric acid on rooting of air layers of arjun and chebulic myrobalan. Indian Forester, 120(2):183-186; 6 ref.

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and its potential as a food source. Food Chemistry, 40(2):213-219; 23 ref.

6

Nurul Islam, Abdus Samad Khan, 1991. Piece dyeing of cotton fabrics with Myrobalan [Terminalia chebula] fruits. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 26(1-4):175-187; 2 ref.

odrigo TMASK, 1990. Revitalization of degraded forest land in the dry zone by planting medicinal species. Sri Lanka Forester, 19(3/4):43-45.

Sanjeev Thakur, Handa AK, Singh NB, Thakur S, 1996. Seed germination studies in Terminalia chebula. Van Vigyan, 34:134_135.

Boer, E., et al. 1995. Terminalia L. In Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 5(2): Timber tree: Minor commercial timber. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 475-478, 483.

Fundter, J.M., et al. 1992. Terminalia chebula Retz. In Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 3: Dye and tannin-producing plants. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp 122-125.

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X. References:

7

2)

Nguyen et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

5)

Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest

Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium, Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp. 12)

CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)

16)

Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp. 19)

Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef

Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp. 26)

World Agroforestry Centre

http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp?

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Toona sureni (Blume) Merr]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Toona sureni (Blume) Merr] ³

Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. [16]

B. English name (s)

³

red cedar [12]

C. Synonym

³

Toona febrifuga Roem.; Cedrela febrifuga Blume; Toona

A. Latin name

(s)

febrifuga (Blume) M.J. Roemer; Cedrela sureni (Blume) Burkill [16,26]

D. Other1

³

suren (Indonesia-general); serijan, surian amba (Sumatera); surian wangi (Malaysia-Peninsular); danupra (Philippinesgeneral); ye tama (Burma); surian (Thailand); Xoan moc; lat khet, truong van, ma nham; (Vietnam); cèdre de Cochinchine (French) [2,4,16].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

qaMqa b¤ xøwmcnÞ Source: [-]

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F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chham chha: khlüm chan [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Sapindales Family: Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae Gunus: Toona (Endl.) M. J. Roemer [16] Species: Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. [12] Source :[4 ;

11 ; 16]

H. Botanical characteristics : Preliminary remark: The genus Toona comprises 4 or possibly 5 species and is distributed from Pakistan and China to Australia and it occurs widely throughout Malesia, where 3 or 4 species are found. [16]. T. calantas is occuring almost exclusively in the Philippines [16]. [General]: A large tree, up to 25-30 m high. Bole straight, cylindrical; young branchlets first covered by brownish-yellow tomentum, then glabrous [2]. Tree, 20-40 m tall,[4]. Large size tree, up to 35 m tall, up to over 100 cm diameter. Stem cylindrical, straight, base with buttress. Young branches dark brown [14]. A medium-sized to fairly large tree up to 40(-60) m tall, with bole branchless for up to 25 m and up to 100 cm in diameter, in mountainous areas up to 300 cm diameter; buttresses, if present, up to 2 m high [16].

[Bark]: Bark brown, sparsely lenticillate (2). Bark thick, brownish-grey, longitudinal fissures, bark peeling off [14]. Bark surface usually fissured and flaky, whitish, greyish-brown or pale brown; with aromatic odor when cut [16]. [Leaves]:Paripinnate, sometimes imparipinnate, 25-60 cm long. Leaflets 14-16 pairs (often 8 pairs), opposite or subopposite. Leaf-blade thin, 9-17 cm long 2.5-7.0 cm wide, tapering, mucronate at the apex, oblique at the base, margin entire, glabrous on both surfaces, or only pubescent on the midrib and nerve axils. Lateral nerves 10-15 pairs , prominent beneath. Petiolule 0.5-1.5 cm long [2]. Leaves paripinnate, rarely odd pinnate, alternate. Leaflets 7-14 pairs, usually 8 pairs, nearly opposite, 8-17 cm long, 2.5-7.0 cm wide, elliptic, apex mucronate, base unequal, margin entire or crenulate. Leaf-

surface [14]. Leaflets entire, usually hairy on veins above, petal margins, ovary and disc hairy [16]. [Flowers]: Flowers small, arranged into terminal panicles, same length as the leaf, or slightly shorter, covered with setae. Flowers white, 5 mm long, pedicel short. Sepals 5 very short, united at the base, obtuse, pubescent outside. Petals thin, white, oval, apex obtuse, 4-5 mm long, margin ciliate. Stamens 5, as long as the petals, or slightly shorter, anthers oval. Disc as long as the ovary, pubescent. Ovary setaceous, style glabrous, stigma discoid, 8-10 ovules in each loculus [2]. Inflorescence racemose, apical. Flowers bisexual, corolla white, margin with fine hairs. Stamens 5, free, nearly as long as petals, sometimes with staminodes. Disc (receptacle) stout, rounded, lobed, stigma cup-shaped, veins 5. Ovary tomentose, 5-locular, each locule containing 8-10 ovules [14]. [Fruit]: Fruit a capsule, oblong-oval, sparsely silvery-white lenticillate, 2.5-3.5 cm long. Seed has 2 wings at each end, about 1.0-1.5 cm long [2]. Fruit a capsule, elliptic, 3.0-3.5 cm long, 1 cm in diameter, fruit coat with many white spots. Seed flat, brilliantly brown, wings at both ends, irregular. Tree has a tap root system [14]. Columella of fruit concave with apical scarring, fruit valves rough and verrucose with conspicuous lenticels; seed winged at both ends [16]. Flowering in March-April, fruiting in December-January (of next year) [2]. Flowering January-February, fruit ripe for collection April-May, when black in colour [14].

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blade glabrous, base of the midrib has a tuft of hairs, lateral veins 12-15 pairs conspicuous on lower

2

In Java T. sureni flowers in May and bears fruit from July to October [16].

I. Wood properties: The following data on wood properties are averages obtained from a mix of Toona species, e.g. T. ciliata, T. sinensis, and T. sureni. Toona spp. are traded under the name of Surian as a light-weight hardwood [16]. Sapwood and heartwood distinct; sapwood pale yellow, heartwood brownish-pink, fragrant. Annual rings conspicuous, clearly delimited, 5-7 mm wide. Vessels single and double, short, distribution circle or semi-circle, usually there is a brown substance in the vessels. Rays small and medium with sweetsmelling essential oil. Paraparenchyma scanty and aggregate in terminal band. Parenchyma is also scattered in fibre mass. Wood medium position in hardness and weight, specific gravity of dry wood 540 kg/m³. Coefficient of volume shrinkage 0.53. Grain saturation point 23%. Compression strength along the grain 507 kg/cm²; cleavage strength 12 kg/cm². Collision bending strength 0.52 [14]. Wood aromatic, reddish-brown, ribbed, soft and easy to work with [2]. Surian is a light-weight and comparably soft wood. Heartwood pale-red to reddish-brown, darkening to dark red-brown on exposure, clearly demarcated from the grey-white, pink or pale-red sapwood. Specific gravity is 270530(-670)kg/m³ at 15% m.c. The grain is straight to interlocked, sometimes wavy, texture rather coarse and uneven. The wood often has an aromatic, cedar-like odour [16]. At 15% m.c. the modulus of rupture is 42-85 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 7,115-10,700 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 21.5-45.0 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain 2-7 N/mm², shear

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

3-9 N/mm², cleavage 32-43 N/mm² radial and 36-52 N/mm² tangential; Janka side hardness 1,215-

3

3,960 N, and Janka end hardness 2,585-4,605 N. The rates of shrinkage are moderately to fairly high: from green to 12% moisture content (m.c.) 1.1-4.0% radial and 2.6-7.0% tangential; from green to oven dry 2.1- 5.0% radial and 3.6-8.2% tangential. In Malaysia surian wood is reported to dry rapidly with only slight warping. However, elsewhere it is reported that the timber is somewhat refractory in drying and prone to warping, collapsing and cupping, particularly with thin planks. Close spacing of stickers and weighting of stacks is recommended. Boards 25 mm (1 inch) thick take 1-3.5 months to air-dry. In Malaysia kiln schedule J is recommended; boards 25mm thick can be kiln-dried from 50% to 10% m.c. in 3-6 days without any degrade. The wood is easy to saw, cross-cut and plane and the planed surface is smooth. It takes a good polish. Some material tends to produce a wooly finish and it is therefore essential to use sharp tools. Mortising, turning, and sanding give moderate results, but boring sometimes gives poor results. The gluing and nailing properties are rated as good but the nail-holding strength is moderate. The timber peels well, and produces good-class veneer with a nice figure. It can be peeled into 1.5 mm thick veneer at a 90º peeling angle without pretreatment. Sometimes logs are liable to lateral and end splitting which may result in the veneer breaking during peeling. Surian veneer glued with ureaformaldehyde produces plywood complying with the German standard [16]. In Malaysia the wood is rated as non-durable. Reports from elsewhere indicate that the heartwood is moderately durable but susceptible to dry-termite and borer attack. The heartwood is resistant to impregnation with

preservatives or may show an unsatisfactory penetration pattern, but the sapwood is permeable. Wood dust may irritate mucous mebranes or induce bronchitis or dermatitis. Wood of T. sureni contains 61% cellulose, 27% lignin, 11.5 % pentosan, 0.8% ash and 0.5% silica. The solubility is 2.3% in alcohol-benzene, 3.0% in cold water, 6.5% in hot water, and 10.2% in a 1% NaOH solution. The energy value is about 21,870 kJ/kg [16].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : T.sureni occurs in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Burma, Bangladesh, Indochina, southern China, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Australia (14), throughout Malesia to western New Guinea [2,16]. A tree of the dense coastal forest formations in SE Asia [4]. Grows mixed with many species in evergreen and semi-deciduous forest types [14]. T. sureni occurs in primary forests but is more common in secondary forest, often on riparian hillsides and slopes up to 1700(-2100) m elevation [16]. The area of distribution extends approximately from 40ºN to 10ºS [12].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : The species of Toona grow in tropical as well as near subtropical climates, from sea level to 3000 m, in Southeast Asia to 2000 m elevation above sea-level [14], 0-2300m [12]. Trees occur scattered in primary forests, but usually more numerous in secondary forests [16]. In Vietnam scattered in hilly regions or rocky hills, below 700 m asl. A light demanding tree, growing quickly (2). Prefers hot and humid climate, mean annual rainfall varying between (850)-1120-4000 mm/m² with a uniform distribution during the summer [12] and a dry season lasting 3-4 [14], 2-6 [12]) months. Lowest and

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : Prefers deep, wet soil of high fertility [2]. It grows well on thick soil layer, sufficiently moist and with good drainage. It can grow on acid to neutral [12], acidic as well as alkaline soils [14]. Toona prefers deep, rich, moist, loamy soils with good drainage, the majority of species preferring alkaline soils. T. sureni demands fertile and moist soils [16], with a light to medium soil texture, free drainage and acid to neutral soil reaction [12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood): The wood can be used for joinery, sawing boards, and wood carving [2]. Surian is much in demand for cabinetry and construction [4]. Used for fences; gates; containers; pallets; crates; boxes; cases; vats; wood ware; industrial and domestic wood ware; tool handles; musical instruments; wood carvings; pencils; veneers; boats; wood based materials; plywood [12]. The wood is suitable for furniture manufacture, boards and structural elements requiring high strength [14]. Used as all surian timber for house building, and implements, furniture, joinery, cabinet work, decorative panelling,

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

highest mean temperatures range from 6ºC to 18ºC, and 28ºC to 45ºC, respectively [14].

4

ceiling boards, packing cases, bent work, boat and canoe building, paddles, oars, piano cases, musical instruments, face veneer, plywood, carving, sculpture. [16]. The species is considered worth for reforestation [2]. [Non-Wood]: There are diiferent medicinal uses, e.g., an infusion prepared from the flowers is said to have an antispasmodic effect; decoctions prepared from bark and roots can lower fever and have antidysenteric effect [4]. Roots and seeds can be used for preparing medicines, the bark contains much tannin [14]. Various parts of the plant, especially the bark, are used in local medicine as adstringent, tonic and for treatment of diarrhoea. Leaf extracts are said to exhibit antibiotic activity. Trees are being planted as ornamentals, firebreaks, and in reforestation[16]. Bark fibres are pepared for manufacture of string bags; in India flowers are used to produce a red or yellow dye [16].

O. Cambodian wood classification : Not included [18].

P. Silviculture and management : The species is worth to be considered for reforestation because of its advantages such as fast growth, easy regeneration and high value of the wood [2]. Trial plantations have been established with T. ciliata in Africa, Latin America, Australia, Hawaii and West Java. Young plants need some shade, later full light, lateral shade is tolerated and useful in reducing Hypsipyla damage [16]. Young plants need protection against browsing by wildlife and against fire. Optimum rotation age is around 40 years Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

thereafter increment diminishes. Mean annual increment ranges from 7-18 m³/ha . Hypsipyla robusta,

5

the shoot borer is the main pest threatening plantations. The presence of a toxine in T. ciliata is promising for breeding Hypsipyla-resistant Meliaceae [16]. At present no forest planting models with T. sureni have been successful. There are only a few experimental enrichment and line plantings but the results are not yet satisfactory. The survival rate is low because of damage caused by the shoot borer. Possibly by planting in mixed plantations protection against the shoot borer is more effective [14].

Q. Propagation : The following information concerns predominantly Toona species other than T. sureni: For Southeast Asia the following seed counts per kg have been made: T. calantas 83,000- 420,000; T. ciliata 280,000-425,000; T.sinensis 403,000-721,000; for T. sureni 64,000- 468,000. Fruits should be collected when they start to open. They are left to dry in the sun for several days and, after shelling, seed may be separated by winnowing. Fresh seed of T. ciliata showed 60-90% germination, but only 45% for T. sureni. Seed can be sown without any pretreatment in beds protected from direct sunlight and rain and covered thinly with fine sand. 2-4 weeks after germination the 5-10 cm tall seedlings may be transplanted. Direct seeding is uncommon because the fine seed may be easily washed away. Striplings at least 1 m long, short stumps (7cm shoot, 25 cm root), bare-rooted

seedlings or seedlings with attached soil clump may be used for planting. Stumps of 1.5-2.5 cm diameter performed better than those with diameter 0.5- 1.25 cm. For enrichment line planting of depleted primary forest or poor secondary forest 1.5-2-year-old stumps are used. A 60% rooting was obtained by using stem cuttings from 2-4 -year-old material of T. sureni treated with indolebutyric acid (IBA) placed in a saw dust medium. Branch cuttings taken from old T.calantas trees and planted in nursery beds failed to sprout. Both, T. sinensis and T. ciliata produce root suckers abundantly and both coppice fairly well. Spacings most commonly reported are 2 m x 2 m for T. ciliata, 1.5 m x 1.5 m for T. sureni.

R. Hazards and protection : All Meliaceae are susceptible to the attack of the Hypsila robusta borer. Its larvae feed on the buds and destroy the leader shoot. Planting under shade may reduce the risk but cannot fully stop it [16].

S. Conservation : The species T. calantas is close to extinction in the Philippines due to over-exploitation, no details of the situation of Toona sureni are known [16].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : unknown

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Malesia to western New Guinea, but introduced and increasingly planted as a roadside and ornamental tree in other tropical and subtropical countries [12,16].

V. Miscellaneous4 : Surian species provide good-quality timber which can be used for various purposes. Moreover they grow fast and are easy to propagate vegetatively. Surian species, therefore, are worth including into silvicultural trials. They may also have great potential for use in mixed timber plantations to suppress pests of other timber species. The wide-spread planting of surian for multipurpose uses should be encouraged.[16].

W. Further readings5 : Bahadur, K.N. 1988: Monograph on the genus Toona (Meliaceae). Bishen Sing Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 251 pp. Edmonds, J.M. 1993: The potential value of Toona species (Meliaceae) as multiple purpose and plantation trees in Southeast Asia. Comm. For. Review 72(3): 181-186. Chen FH, 1987: Flora of Guangdong. Guangdong, China: Guangdong Science and Technology Press.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Native species in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Burma, Indochina, southern China, Thailand, throughout

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Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text]. Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, 1995. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers., 655 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. PROSEA NUGI 835.]; 747 ref. Liu P, Yang JJ, Lu FJ, 1993: Wood of Southeastern Asia. Beijing, China: China Forestry Publishing House, pp. 179-180. Luna RK, 1996: Plantation trees. Plantation trees., xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections]. Merrifield LE, Howcroft NHS, 1975: Propagation of Cedar, Toona sureni (Bl.) Merr., from cuttings treated with growth substances. Turrialba, 25(1):54-57; 7 ref. Mohd Shukari M, 1985: Malaysian timbers - surian. Trade Leaflet, Malaysian Forest Service, No. 93:5pp.; 3 ref. Storrs A, Storrs J, 1984: Discovering trees in Nepal and the Himalayas. Discovering trees in Nepal and the Himalayas., xxiv + 366pp.; 15 ref. Tang Y, 1973: Tropical and Subtropical Timber in Yunnan. Yunnan, China: People's Publishing House. Webb DB, Wood PJ, Smith JP, Henman GS, 1984: A guide to species selection for tropical and subtropical plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

No. 15 (rev.):ii + 256 pp.; 175 ref.

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Xiao GG, 1991: Forest insects of China. Forest insects of China., Ed. 2:vi + 1362 pp.; many ref. Ye GY, 1980. Promising trees in limestone area: Toona sureni and Cinnamomum camphora. Subtropical Forest Science and Technology, 3:49-59. Ye X, 1983. Afforestation of Broad-leaved Trees. Guangxi, China: People's Publishing House, 32-34. Zheng WJ, 1978. Silvicultural techniques for major forest trees in China. Volume 1. Beijing, China; China Agriculture Press. Zhou GS, 1994: Introduction and Silviculture of fast-growing Toona sureni and T. ciliata var. pubescens. J. of Fujian Forestry College, 14(3):271-276.

X. References: 2)

Nguyen, N.C. et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997 788 pp.

4)

Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,

915 pp.

5)

Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest

Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

8)

Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field

guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands

11)

Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York;

336 pp.

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium 2003

14)

FSIV/JICA 2003: Use of Indigenous Tree Species in Reforestation in Vietnam. Agricultural

16)

Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of

Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp.

20)

Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

26)

World Agroforestry Centre

http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

27)

Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Publishing House, Hanoi, 188 pp.

8

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub] A. Latin name

(s)

³

Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub.[4]; var. kerrii (Craib. & Hutch.) I.C. Nielsen[8]

B. English name (s)

³

irul [12]

C. Synonym

³

Xylia dolabriformis Benth. [4], Acacia xylocarpa (Roxb.)Willd.; Inga xylocarpa (Roxb.)DC.; Mimosa xylocarpa Roxb. [8].

D. Other1

³

pyincado (Burma); sô kra:ch, sô krâ m krâhâ :m, sô krâ m sâ r (Cambodia); deng (Laos) daeng (Thailand-general); câm xe (Vietnam [8,17].

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

sURkM Source: [-]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ Sô:krâm [4] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³

1

Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Fabales Family: Mimosoideae Gunus: Xylia Benth. [17] Species: Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. [17] Source :[4 ; 11 ; 16]

H. Botanical characteristics : Within X. xylocarpa two varieties are distinguished: var.xylocarpa from India and Burma with subglabrous leaflets and glandular anthers, and var. kerrii (Craib. & Hutch.) I.C. Nielsen (synonym: X. kerrii (Craib & Hutch.) from Burma, Indochina and Thailand with hairy leaflets and eglandular anthers [17]. [General]: A large deciduous tree, 30-40 m in height and 40-60 cm in diameter. Trunk terete, sometimes straight with small buttresses at the base. Crown dense [2]. Tree, 20-25 m tall [4]. Large deciduous tree up to 30 m high. Trunk straight, branches slender, drooping, branchlets unarmed and without spinescent stipules [5, 8]. A deciduous, medium-sized tree up to 25 (-40) m tall, bole straight and cylindrical, sometimes fluted; branchless up to 12 (-25) m and up to 75(-120) cm diameter, buttresses small or absent [17]. [Bark]: Bark yellow-grey to reddish-grey, rough, peeling off in irregualr fragments. Inner bark red. Branchlets caniliculate and with brownish dots [2]. Bark creamy brown or red-brown, thin, peeling in rounded flakes, small lenticels, inner bark pink. Twigs densely puberulous, glabrescent. Stipules filiform, 3-4 mm long, petiole 3-8 cm long, terete, puberulous or tomentose; inner bark pink [5, 8]. Bark surface flaky, with small lenticels, greyish to reddish or yellow-brown, inner bark pinkish, crown dense [17]. [Leaves]:Bipinnately compound, rhachis 2.5-5.0 cm long, with one pair of pinnae, 7.5-10.0 cm long, and a gland at the base. Pinnae with 2-6 pairs of leaflets, small gland at the base of leaflets. Lamina oblong, oval or ovate, lower leaflets smaller than upper ones, the two terminal leaflets are the largest, 7.5-15.0 cm by 3.5 cm. Lateral veins subparallel [2]. Leaf bipinnate with a single pair of side stalks,

ovate or elliptic with slightly pointed tips. Leaflet stalks 0.2-0.3 cm, main stalk 3-8 cm, all joints with rounded glands. Young leaves delicate pink, appearing in March-April just after the flowers [5]. Leaves bipinnate, paripinnate, glabrescent, gland at the junction of the pinnae, 1-3 mm in diameter; pinnae 1 pair, 7-30 cm long, slightly sulcate, tomentose, glabrescent; gland just below the junction of the petiolules, 1-2 mm in diameter. Leaflets 3-7 pairs per pinna, top ones largest, narrowly ovate or elliptic, 3.8-15.0 by 2.4-6.7 cm; mature leaves upper surface glabrous, lower surface puberulous to velutinous, petiolules 2-3 mm long. Young shoots densely covered with yellowish hairs [5,8]. Leaves arranged spirally, bipinnate with one pair of pinnae, rhachis and pinnae glandular, leaflets opposite, 36 pairs per pinna, entire; stipules filiform [17]. [Flowers]: Small, yellowish, in capitulum, 12-20 mm wide. Petals united at 2/3 of lower part. Stamens 10 (in male flower 12), anthers glandular when young. Ovary tomentose [2]. Flower pale yellow, on dense spherical heads, 1.5-2.0 cm, solitary or in very short , unbranched clusters in axils of fallen leaves. Head stalks 3.5-5.0 cm, individual flowers without stalks. 5 petals, 3.5-4.5 mm, slightly fused at base, hairy outside, 10-12 free stamens, 5-12 mm, much longer than petals, 5 stamens longer than others, anthers without glands [5]. Inflorescence peduncles 2.5-9.0 cm long, bearing heads of c. 90 sessile flowers. Bract spoon-shaped. Calyx funnel-shaped, 2.9-4.0 mm long, tomentose to wooly, teeth 0.8- 1.0 mm long, triangular ovate, acute. Petals narrowly elliptic, 3.5-4.5 mm long, filaments

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

10-30 cm, each with 3-7 pairs of opposite leaflets, top ones largest, 4.0-15.0 x 2.5-6.0 cm, narrowly

2

very flat, anthers without glands. Ovary 2-3 mm long [8]. Flowers in stalked globose heads, male or bisexual, 5-merous; calyx funnel-shaped, hairy, with valvate lobes; petals free, hairy; stamens 10, free, ovary superior, sessile, hairy, 2-locular, style 1 [17]. [Fruit ]: Fruit a pod, woody, compressed, oval, 20 mm long, and 12 mm wide [2]. Pod kitchen knifeshaped, 10-17 by 3.5-6.0 cm thick and woody, slightly curved, tapering at base, pale creamy-brown at first, later dark-brown, splitting suddenly into 2 parts, which curl backwards, remaining on the tree for a long time. Seeds 6-10, ellipsoid, flat, 11-20 mm by 7-12 mm, dark-brown [5, 8]. Fruit a boomerangshaped flat, woody pod, dehiscing from the apex in 2 recurving valves, 7-10 seeded. Seed ellipsoid, flat, testa hard and brown, with pleurogram. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent; hypocotyl elongated; first pair of leaves opposite, with 1(-2) pairs of leaflets, sometimes 3-foliate, subsequent leaves arranged spirally [17]. Flowering from March to June, fruiting from November to December. Slow growing but long living species [2]. Flowering March-June, fruiting NovemberDecember [17].

I. Wood properties: Sapwood and heartwood distinct; sapwood yellowish-white, thick, heartwood dark red, slightly streaked and very fine. Wood very durable, resistant to termites and other insects, and weather [2] Easy to work when fresh but becoming hard when dry and difficult to work by hand [2]. Wood extremely hard and durable, resistant to termites, other insects, and weather under exterior applications [8]. X. xylocarpa yields a heavy hardwood with a specific gravity of 880-1170(-1330) kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood reddish-brown to dark brown, distinct from the up to 2.5 cm wide, paler

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

sapwood; grain interlocked or wavy, texture moderately fine to medium and even; surface somewhat

3

gummy, causing a speckled appearance. Growth rings distinct to indistinct; when distinct then indicated by narrow parenchyma bands; vessels moderately small to moderately large, solitary and in radial multiples of 2-4, occasionally in oblique arrangement, frequent orange-brown gum deposits; parenchyma moderately abundant to abundant, paratracheal vasicentric, aliform and confluent, with occasional apotracheal parenchyma in very narrow marginal or seemingly marginal bands, rays very fine, visible with a hand lens, ripple marks absent [17]. Shrinkage is low but the wood requires careful and slow seasoning to prevent checking and splitting; in kiln-drying it needs a mild and slow drying schedule. The wood is very hard and very strong. It is difficult to work and plane and has a serious blunting effect on tools but a good finish can be obtained. Green stock, however, is easier to saw. The wood is very durable: untreated sleepers lasted for 12 years in Thailand and for 20-24 years in India. The heartwood is very resistant to preservative treatment, the sapwood is readily treatable. The wood is susceptible to longhorn and buprestid beetle attack, the sapwood to Lyctus, but the wood is resistant to termites and marine borers [17].

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Xylia comprises about 12 species, most of which occur in tropical Africa and Madagascar. Only one species occurs in Southeast Asia: X. xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taubert, (synonym: X. dolabriformis Benth.) It is not found in the wild in Malesia but occurs in India, Burma, Indochina and Thailand. It is also

planted within its natural area of distribution, rarely outside this region, rarely in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia [17]. Geographical limits are given as 25ºN to 12ºN. It occours in dry evergreen forest and mixed deciduous forest but growth is poor in dry deciduous dipterocarp forest, in higher altitude forests and in moist bamboo forests. Formerly a major component, less common today because of selective logging for its excellent dark-brown wood [2,4,5,8].

K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Grows between 500 m and 850 m (0-600 m [12]) elevation asl. [2,8,17]; in rather open and dry forest types, usually mixed with Dipterocarpus alatus, Lagerstroemia calyculata, Tetrameles nudiflora, Anogeissus acuminata, and Schima superba. A light-demanding tree, growing on sandy, deep soils. The deep taproot is strongly developed. Regenerates well even in fire-prone areas [5]. Mean annual rainfall varying from 1000 -5000 mm/m² preferably with a bimodal distribution of the summer-winter rains. The dry season should extend between 3-5 months while the mean annual temperature should lie in the range of 30-42ºC . X. xylocarpa prefers well-drained conditions and an undulating surface. It is not found on lower slopes of hills where the soil is fairly deep and moist. Occurs under variable types of rocks and soils such as schist, shale, alluvium, deep black soils, etc., where it shows better growth [12].

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : not determined

M. soil and site conditions : geological formations, such as granite, gneiss, mica, schist, basalt, trap, quartzite, sandstone and limestone. It prefers gneiss to laterite although it is sometimes plentiful on lateritic soils, though it does not attain large dimensions. On gneiss soils it may sometimes be found as pure stands. It is not too exacting as to soil conditions, growing fairly well on dry, shallow, or rocky soils. It attains its largest sizes on the banks of hill streams [12]. Soil texture should be light to medium, with free drainage; soil reaction may vary from very acid to acid to neutral. X. xylocarpa tolerates shallow and saline soils. Suitable soil types comprise acid soils, alfisols, alluvials, colluvials, ferralsols, granitic, gravelly and lateritic soils, limestone soils, sandstone soils, ultisols, vertisols, mountain and tropical soils, demonstrating a large tolerance band [12].

N. Utilization and importance : [Wood]: The hard, heavy (air-dry weight about 850 kg/m³) and strong wood of X. xylocarpa is mainly utilised as a heavy constructional timber. The timber has a medium fine texture and interlocking grain and a very durable dark reddish-brown heartwood. The wood requires great care in seasoning to prevent cracking, splitting and warping; thus slow drying schedules are recommended. The heartwood, which is comparable to teak in termite resistance, is very refractory to preservative

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

X. xylocarpa grows on well-drained sandy and rocky soils [5]. X. xylocarpa is found on various

4

treatment [12]. The timber is often used for railway sleepers and heavy construction such as bridges, piles, mine timber and for harbour work. It is also used for construction of railway wagons and shipbuilding. X. xylocarpa is generally preferred for structures subject to wear and rough usage such as fenders, gangways, chutes, paving blocks, etc. The timber is widely used for agricultural implements, country carts, well-curbs, canoes, tool handles, and oil presses. It is also used as roundwood for transmission poles, pit props and building poles [12]. The wood is a very good fuel and its charcoal is highly prized for iron smelters. The wood is also being utilised, depending on availability, for mixed hardwood pulp [12]. Used for furniture, ships, boats, bridge constructions, railway sleepers, carts,and piles [2,4, 8].The hard and durable wood of X. xylocarpa is used for heavy construction. e.g. for posts, and flooring, bridges, marine piling, railway sleepers, boat construction, fresh water locks, paving blocks, rubbing fenders, chutes and for furniture, turnery and household implements [17]. [Non-Wood]: Bark and fruit are used in local medicine. In Indochina a decoction against haemoptysis is prepared [4,17]. The bark and the wood yield a tanning material, and the seeds an oil. The woody pods are used as fuel for cooking in southern India. Other medicinal uses are for diarrhea, gonorrhea, and as a vermifuge. Leaves are used as a green manure [12].

O. Cambodian wood classification : Not included [18].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

P. Silviculture and management :

5

Although large plantations of X. xylocarpa are rarely raised, stands can be established by direct sowing, planting stock or by stump planting. Bare-rooted nursery seedlings do not survive planting out well, owing to injury to the tap root, which develops very early. However, stump plants aged 8 to 10 months old can be successfully used, but are more costly. Experiments in Burma suggested that stump plants were a promising method of plantation establishment. A gradual opening of the canopy is necessary for further development of the established seedlings. Weeds become only a problem if the canopy is opened too fast. Trees 26 years old produced 10 t/ha of litter annually. In Bangladesh a 10-15 year rotation for the production of power transmission poles has been suggested. X. xylocarpa is fire-resistant [17]. The growth rate of young trees is reportedly fairly high: In India trees were on average 5.7 m tall and 8 cm in diameter after 5 years; in Bangladesh 16 m tall and 19 cm after 10 years. A 23-year-old tree growing in the Arboretum of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) achieved 26 m height and 30 cm dbh [12]. Xylia xylocarpa in natural forests of India is worked under a selection system, simple coppice system, or coppice with standards. Where the selection system is followed, the exploitable girth is 1.35 m to 1.5 m; trees reach this dimension in about 95 years. In considerable areas of its habitat (e.g., Karnataka and some parts of Maharashtra in India), the mixed deciduous forests containing it are worked chiefly for fuelwood and charcoal under the simple coppice or coppice-with-standards system. Coppice reproduction comes up quite vigorously producing 1-20 shoots per stool. Thinning of coppice shoots to one or two per stool is beneficial in improving their

development. The optimum size for fuelwood, i.e., 20 cm stem diameter at breast height (dbh), is reached in about 40 to 45 years. Stem diameter increment data is also tabulated for natural forests in Karnataka. General height and diameter growth data for India, quoted by Sosef et al. [17[ are 5.7 m tall and dbh of 8 cm at age 5 years old. In Bangladesh, 10-year-old trees measured 16 m in height and 19 cm in diameter [17]. Generally, growth in high forests is slow, whereas under plantation conditions it is fast. For example, in natural high forests in Ankola, trees attain a girth of 15.2 cm after ten years; in plantations in Malayattur (Kerala), trees reached a girth of 55 cm and a height of 44.5 cm in the same period. Coppice growth in Orissa reached a girth of 44.5 cm and a maximum height of 10.7 m at age 25 years [12].

Q. Propagation : Seeds are available for collection in March-April. The ripe pods are gathered off the tree before they dehisce. They are dried under sun in cloth bags. The fruits dehisce and release the seeds. The seeds are stored in a dry place without loss of viability for about 3 months. Reports also suggest that the seeds keep well up to one year. There are about 3200-4000 seeds/kg [12]. X. xylocarpa can be raised from seed, which can be stored for one year if kept dry. Seed viability is high and germination occurs readily when sown under shade and with adequate watering. Seeds presoaked in cold water germinate in 4-11 days giving 70% to 90% germination [12]. Direct seeding is recommended, as seedlings do not stand the shock of transplanting well, probably because the tap root develops rapidly and attains 30 cm length in 1-2 months. Natural regeneration is enhanced by slightly opening the

loose, bare, well-drained soils under shade. The young seedlings must be protected from fire. X. xylocarpa can be propagated by seeds and stumps. Stumps of 8-10 months can be successfully used, but are more costly. Trials were undertaken in Tamil Nadu to compare direct sowing, planting stock and stump plants, which clearly indicated that direct sowing was the best method to use, as both the survival rate and mean seedling height were greater after one growing season (77% and 16.3 cm, respectively) than for entire planting stock (45% and 10.5 cm) or stump plants (52% and 9.5 cm respectively) [12]. Direct sowing in well-loosened patches at 2 m intervals in rows 3 m apart, is advocated. Polythene-potted 15 months old seedlings of 15 cm height have been used in planting trials. An evaluation of the plantation at the end of two years showed that only about 25% of plants survived. In India direct seeding is done at a spacing of 2 m by 3 m , plantations require weeding for 2-3 years. In Laos and Vietnam direct seeding in enrichment plantings failed. X. xylocarpa coppices and pollards well and it can produce abundant root suckers. Well-established trees resprout from burnt stumps [17]. Coppicing and pollarding experiments conducted in central India during April-June gave excellent results with 95% of stools producing coppice shoots and 85% of pollarded trees regenerating well [12].

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

canopy around seed-bearing trees and burning the debris. Seedling establishment is favoured on

6

R. Hazards and protection : Over 50 species of insects including defoliators, bark feeders, root feeders and seed borers are associated with living X. xylocarpa. None of them is a threat to the establishment of nurseries or plantations. In a study carried out in Kerala, India, 10 species of insects were listed, all of which caused minor damage, except Caryedon serrata (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), which damaged 35% of seeds in storage within a period of three weeks [12].

Xylia xylocarpa is not affected by any serious disease. However, during monsoon periods, leaf blight caused by Glomerella cingulata was observed in natural forests, and seedling blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani was present in nurseries. The leaf blight starts with the appearance of brown spots on leaves, which enlarge in size within a few days and turn dark brown with a yellowish margin. Later the spots coalesce covering large areas of the lamina resulting in leaf blight and defoliation. In the case of seedling blight, initially leaves turn light yellow and within a week affected leaves and apical portions of the plants show wilting. This disease can be controlled through application of Carbendazim (0.2% a.i.) or Carboxin (0.2% a.i) [12]. Butt rot fungi (such as Fomes fastuosus, Polystichus spp.) were found to have attacked 80% of trees in Goa; it is thought that the fungi enter via stem fire scars. Fungus diseases: Fomes fastuosus and Trametes serpens,causing butt rot disease in India; Glomerella cingulata, leaf blight, Thanatephorus cucumeris, causing seedling blight in nurseries in

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

India [12].

7

There is very little information available on genetic variation or provenance differences, reproductive biology or breeding aspects of X. xylocarpa. In Cambodia, two forms of the species are recognised which differ in wood colour: one is red-brown and the other pale red-brown [17].

S. Conservation : In many regions within its natural area of distribution X. xylocarpa is common and large supplies of timber are still available. However, over-exploitation in many stands threatens genetic resources [17].

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : Not determined

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : Native to India, Burma, Bangladesh, Indochina, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia.[2,5,8,17], introduced elsewhere [17]. X. xylocarpa is increasingly depleted in its natural range and genetic erosion is threatening [17].

V. Miscellaneous4 : The wood of X. xylacarpa is of excellent quality. The tree has high potential to be grown in plantations as it grows fairly fast. However, techniques of establishment and the management of the light regime during the first years need to be further investigated. X. xylocarpa has been proposed in taungya

systems to be interplanted with teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) as it has good soil improving properties [17].

W. Further readings5 : Chudnoff, M. 1984: Tropical Timbers of the World. Agricultural Handbook 607. USDA Forest Service, Washington D.C. 464 pp. Meyenfeldt, von, C.F.W.M. et al. 1978:Restoratiojn of devastated inland forests in South Vietnam. Vol.III: List of tree species. Agricultural University Wageningen, The Netherlands, 219 pp. Keating, W.G. and Bolza, E. 1982: Characteristics, properties and uses of timbers. Vol.1. Southeast Asia, Northern Australia and the Pacific. Inkata Press Proprietary Ltd. Melbourne, Sidney, London. 362 pp. Bennet SSR, Bahadur KN, 1978. Botanical identity of pyinkado and irul. Indian Forester, 104(9):621624.

Bhat KM, Bhat KV, Dhamodaran TK, 1985. Wood and bark properties of branches of selected tree species growing in Kerala. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 29:iii + 34 pp.; 34 ref.

Hegde R, Hegde HG, Chandrashekharaiah AM, 1993. Identification of efficient fuelwood. Indian

Klivetong M, 1996. Growth response of leguminous tree seedlings to Rhizobium inoculation and EM solution. Technical Publication - ASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre Project. No. 34. Muak-Lek, Saraburi, Thailand: ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre. Kumar A, Ghosh K, Sinha NK, Dutta SK, 1986. Bark anatomy of Xylia xylocarpa Roxb. with histopharmacognostic evaluation. Journal of Plant Anatomy and Morphology, 3(1):49-54; 14 ref.

Saraf GP, Pai NM, Meshramkar PM, Deb UK, Jaspal NS, 1980. Utilization of a mixture of Xylia xylocarpa, Terminalia tomentosa and Terminalia paniculata for pulping. IPPTA, Indian Pulp and Paper Technical Association, 17(2):1-10; 4 ref. Sharma RP, Jain RC, Shet SN, 1979. Regional [Goa] volume tables for Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. Indian Forest Records, Management & Mensuration, 3(4):7 pp.; [2 tab.].

X. References: 2)

Nguyen, N.C. et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997 788 pp.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Forester, 119(11):944-945; 1 ref.

8

4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.

8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York; 336 pp.

12)

CABI Forestry Compendium, editon 2003; (on CD ROM).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.

9

20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

22) International Legume Database and Information Service (ILDIS). http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?sciname=. (Internet source)

26) World Agroforestry Centre http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)

27)

Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia :: Digital Species :: ______________________________________________ DATASHEET [Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED Datasheet Report Powered by: Natural Technology Systems

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia [Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.] A. Latin name B. English name (s)

(s)

³

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.

³

Indian jujube, desert apple, Indian plum, Indian cherry, Chinese date, jujuba [1], jujube fruit [4]

C. Synonym

³

Rhamnus jujuba L., Ziziphus jujuba (L.) Gaertn. nom. illeg., Zizyphus mauritiana [1], Zizyphus jujuba Mill & Lamk, Zizyphus laccifera, Zizyphus anoplia [4]

D. Other1

³

jujubier indien, jujubier (France) [2, 4] - Indischer Jujubenstrauch (Germany) [1] - widara, dara, bidara (Indonesia) [1] - babari, ber, boguri, boroi, khati, berii, etachi, jelachi, elangi, yelchi, cherumali, ilamda, bhor, borkuli, borokoli, beri, badari, dadara, elandai, regureni, ganga reni, elantha, reegu, kool, kola, ajapriya, karkandhu, kuvala, madhuvaphala, elladu, karak-andhova, yellande (India) [1, 4] - than (Laos) [1] - yellande (Sri Lanka) [1] - zee-pen, eng-si

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

(Myanmar) [1] - bidara, jujub, epal siam (Malaysia) [1] -

1

manzanity (Philippines) [1] - jujube, ker (Pakistan) [1] phutsaa, ma tan, ma thong (Thailand) [1] - tao, tao nhuc, c[aa]y t[as]o ta (Vietnam) [1]

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³:

BuRTa Source: [1,4]

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ putrie [2], putrea [1] G. Taxonomic position(complete)³: Kingdom: Viridiplantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledonae Other : Rhamnales

Family: Rhamnaceae Genus: Ziziphus Species: Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Source :[ 1]

H. Botanical characteristics : [General]: Z. mauritiana is a small to medium-sized, single-stemmed spiny shrub or tree which appears to be evergreen, but is deciduous during the dry season. It normally reaches up to 12 m [1, 4] (5-10 m [2], -13 m or 43 feet [7], -15 m [6]) with a generally short bole which is branchless for about 3 m [1] and a DBH of 30 cm [1], but it is highly variable in size and general appearance. "Old protected trees of this species occasionally reach up to 24 m tall and 1.8 m diameter" [1]. The crown is round and spreading, the branches are slender and downy, and bear paired, with straight or slightly hooked brown spines. Twigs are zigzag, usually softly hairy when young with spinous stipules which are solitary and straight, 5-7 mm long [6] or in dimorphic pairs, the second shorter and recurved, spines sometimes absent. Z. mauritiana has a deep and lateral root system. [Bark]: The outer bark is dark grey or dull black with long vertical fissures, the inner bark is reddish and fibrous inside. It contains tannin and "a crystallizable principle, Zizyphic acid" [4]. [Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, simple, shining green to deep green above and whitish hairy

rounded at both ends. The size ranges from 2 to 6 cm in length [1, 7] (2-9 cm X 1.5-5 cm [4]). This variation is related to site quality and the position on the tree; the leaves on vigorous new shoots are the largest. Each leaf has 3 conspicuous basal nerves and 2 stipular spines, one long and straight, the other small and curved back and often brown in color. "In India, annual growth of Z. mauritiana generally ceases in November. Old leaves fall in March to April and new leaves appear almost simultaneously. Thus the tree is leafless for only a short period, except in dry areas" [1]. [Flowers]: The inflorescences are axillary, flat or convex flower-heads in which the central flowers open first, 1-2 cm long [6]. Each inflorescence contains 7-20 hermaphrodite flowers [6], 2-3 mm in size [6] with 3-8 mm long [6] flower stalks. The calyx consists of 5 deltoid lobes, hairy outside and hairless within. The 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) are spate-shaped concave and reflexed. The faintly fragrant flowers are pollinated by insects. There are 5 stamens (=male organs) [6] in each flower and the ovary (=female organ) is 2-celled, with two branched styles and a 10-lobed [6] or grooved disk. “In India flowers appear in July to October" [1]. [Fruit]: The fruit forms soon after flowering, "remaining green for about four months before turning yellowish on ripening in February-March. In the wild, from the age of three years upward Z. mauritiana usually fruits well every year" [1]. The fruit (=drupe) is spherical or long-shaped initially green and turns deep-yellow, orange and red on ripening. The fruit size is variable from a diameter of 1.2-2 cm

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beneath saw toothed with a variable shape ranging from almost round to an elongated ellipse which is

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[1] in wild plants and 4 cm [3] in cultivation (3.7 cm long [1], -2.5 cm long [2], 6 x 4 cm [6]). The skin is smooth or rough, glossy, thin but tough. The fruit contains sour-sweet whitish pulp which is edible and a hard stone which is tubercled, irregularly furrowed and usually contains two cells [1] with two seeds[1, 3]. The seeds have a papery coat and contain 1-2 elliptic brown kernels per seed [6]. [1, 2, 3, 4, 6]

I. Wood properties: [Wood Properties]: Z. mauritiana timber usually has small dimensions. The wood is light red, maturing to reddish-brown. The heartwood is indistinct from the sapwood, reddish, durable, hard, strong, finely textured and light to moderately heavy with a density of 0.65-0.705 g/cm³ [1]. "The growth rings are inconspicuous and the wood is diffuse porous. The rays are very fine and closely spaced. The wood cracks and warps during seasoning, but saws and works well. It finishes to a smooth surface and takes good polish" [1]. Z. mauritiana wood has a calorific value of 4,878 kcal/kg [1]. [1]

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation : Approximate limits: 35°N to 18°N [1]. Z. mauritiana probably originates from the Middle East or the Indian subcontinent [5] (South and Central Asia and China [1]), but is now cultivated on a small scale throughout the tropics and subtropics, regularly escaping from cultivation and becoming naturalized. Although it is cultivated throughout the tropics, it is only considered commercially important in China and India. Early introduced to continental Southeast Asia, it is found in dune vegetation, moist forests, deciduous forests, dry forests and deserts.

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[1, 5, 6, 7]

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K. Climate and environmental amplitude : Z. mauritiana prefers plains and valleys but the altitudinal distribution ranges from sea level to about 1,000 m elevation [6] (in the arid and semi-arid tracts of India and Pakistan even more than 1,5001,800 m a.s.l. [1]). The species grows best in hot, dry climates with an adequate, bimodal rainfall regime with higher rain during the vegetative period. The annual rainfall in its natural habitat varies from 125 to 2,225 mm [1] (125-2,000 mm [6], 125-2,300 mm [3]). "Studies in India show that some cultivars do fairly well with as little as 300-450 mm per year (300-500 mm [1])" [6]. "Its distribution and area of culture are limited by high atmospheric humidity" [3]. Generally a dry season length of 3-8 months [1] can be tolerated. The average mean temperature varies from 25 to 29°C [1]. Z. mauritiana tolerates a wide range of temperatures with an absolute maximum shade temperature of 31-37°C [1], a non shade temperature of 37-48°C [6] (even 55°C [3]) and a minimum average temperature range of 10-23ºC [1] for the coldest month (7-13°C [6]). The absolute minimum temperature that is tolerated is -5ºC [1] (-6°C [3]) which makes the tree withstand slight frost. The seedlings are damaged by fire. [1, 3, 6]

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia : No information available.

M. soil and site conditions : This tree can grow on a wide range of soil types but thrives best on deep sandy alluvial soils to loamy soils on limestone with a neutral or slightly alkaline pH around 7.5 [1]. Clay soils however are avoided. "Trials in Kashmir indicated that Z. mauritiana grows well on soils with relatively low sodicity, a pH less than 9, exchangeable sodium less than 35%, electrical conductivity less than 4 dS/m and absence of clay kankar pan throughout the root zone of 20-140 cm depth. It adapts well to rain-fed agriculture on black cotton soils due to its strong and deep root system" [1]. Generally it grows in welldrained sandy loams, shingle alluvium, sand dunes, skeletal and gravely soils, and laterite soils. Suitable soil types include alkaline soils, alluvial soils, gravelly soils, saline soils, sandy soils, silty soils, arid soils and vertisols. It withstands seasonal waterlogging and tolerates moderate but not high levels of alkalinity and salinity or acidity. [1, 3, 6]

N. Utilization and importance : [General]: Z. mauritiana is a hardy multipurpose tree valued for its many products. [1] [Wood]: The timber is used as roundwood, roundwood structures, in rural construction, general heavy and light construction, beams, containers, pallets, industrial and domestic woodware, bedlegs, tent pegs, agricultural implements like axe and hoe handles, carvings, cart wheels, oil mills, rice pounders, golf clubs, sandals, furniture, boats, veneer, plywood, particleboard and other wood based materials. Z. mauritiana provides good charcoal and fuelwood, with a calorific value of 4,878 kcal/kg [1].

[Non-wood]: "The horticultural varieties are mainly grown for the fruit and produce large quantities of up to 600 kg/tree per year" [1]. These are eaten fresh, used to make a refreshing drink, dried, pickled or jammed. "The fruit is rich in vitamin C and sugars and it gives edible exudates. "In South-East Asia the unripe fruit is eaten with salt. Reportedly the fruit is also boiled to produce syrup. Young leaves are cooked as vegetable in Indonesia" [6]. "It could be of considerable alimentary importance in periods of scarcity" [3]. "Z. mauritiana leaves contain 13-17% crude protein and 15% fiber, and make an excellent fodder for livestock. In winter the shoots and fruit of the trees are an important feed source" [1]. Leaves are also fed to tussar silkworms. It is one of the few trees which serves as a host to lac insects. "The resinous encrustation from these insects is used to produce shellac which is used as a varnish. The root and stem bark have 7% and leaves 2% tannin; these are sometimes mixed with other materials for tanning leather. Its bark and fruit yield a dye" [1]. Many parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine: Roots, bark, leaves, seeds and fruits all have medicinal applications. The roots of Z. mauritiana are used in the treatment of fever, wounds and ulcers, while the bark which is astringent and is used as a remedy for diarrhea, in the form of a powder of decoction. "Powdered bark is used as a domestic dressing for wounds and ulcers. Juice of the root-bark is used as a purgative and also is applied externally in gout and rheumatisms. The bark is also used on scorpion stings" [4]. "In Malaysia the poultice of the bark may be applied against stomachache" [6]. "Fruits of the cultivated

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[1, 3]

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varieties are very acidic and astringent. When ripe and dried, the fruit is a mild laxative and expectorant. The tender leaves and twigs are used in a form of paste to treat boils and abscesses and carbuncles. The powder of the dried seeds is reputed to have sedative, hypnotic and hypotensive properties" [4]. [1, 3, 4, 6] [Others]: "In India and Pakistan, Z. mauritiana is an important agroforestry and silvipasture species in arid and semi-arid regions and is frequently found in and around arable fields and meadows. The trees grow well in abandoned cultivated fields and on marginal lands" [1]. It is also planted for erosion control, and soil and river-bank stabilization, as well as for land reclamation, coastal screening and as a windbreak. The tree is also commonly used as an ornamental tree in backyards, for living fences around houses and branches are used as thorny fences to deter cattle. The nectar is much in favor by insects. Birds and bats are attracted by the fruits. [1, 3, 7]

O. Cambodian wood classification : No class. [8]

P. Silviculture and management : [General]: Z. mauritiana is a light demanding tree which is found in dune vegetation, moist forests, deciduous forests, dry forests and deserts. [1]

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[Natural regeneration]: It regenerates naturally from seeds, which are dispersed by birds, wild

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animals, livestock and human beings. It shows a high amount of natural regeneration especially on open lands due to the abundant fruit crop, the hardiness of seedlings and the demand for sunlight. [1] [Establishment]: "Seedlings are generally planted in the field during the rainy season at a spacing varying from 3 x 3 m to 5 x 5 m. Stump planting is more successful than bare-rooted seedling planting. The stump plants consist of approximately 25 cm of root and 5-7.5 cm of shoot. When planting seedlings in the field, the soil surrounding the roots should be retained. Weeding and protection should be undertaken for two years after planting and the sown patches thinned. Spacing of 3 x 3 m is used in windbreaks and for fodder production." [1]. "The seedling forms a strong taproot and grows rapidly, forming long straggly twigs" [6]. [Management]: In India and Pakistan growers apply farmyard manure at the rate of 10-15 kg/tree [1] in June and July when growth is resumed, and nitrogen fertilizer as a top dressing during fruit set. "Foliar applications of iron, zinc, manganese and boron to 12-year-old Z. mauritiana cv. Karaka trees increased the number of flowers per shoot, percentage fruit set and retention, fruit weight and yield. Zinc sulphate at 0.4%, iron sulphate at 0.4% and boric acid at 0.2% gave the best results when sprayed in during August and September" [1]. Water requirements are greater during the fruiting stage. Thus, the growing fruit should not suffer water shortage, and although the trees root to a great

depth, the orchard is clean-cultivated and supplementary irrigation is applied when the monsoon rains are inadequate. "Trees for fruit production are pruned when required. Pruning is desirable to enhance the framework of the tree, as well as to induce young shoots to bear flowers and fruits. It is commonly undertaken during the hot dry season ("following the harvest period" [3]) when the plants are dormant and have shed their leaves. The trees are also often lopped, pruned and pollarded for fodder and lac cultivation. Medium pruning of one third of the crown is preferable to severe pruning, which has actually been found to reduce fruit yield. Medium pruning combined with a planting distance of 7.2 x 7.2 m or 9.6 x 9.6 m have shown to be most appropriate for Z. mauritania" [1]. "The young trees are tied to a stake and pruned to obtain 4 or 5 well-spaced scaffold branches, which quickly fill the allotted space; intercrops can be grown only for 2 or 3 years. Clonal trees bear in the second year and may produce a sizeable crop in the fourth year. The trees flower mainly on the new shoots and are pruned to ensure that these shoots have adequate vigor for good fruit and size and quality" [6]. In some parts of India a coppice-with-standarts silvicultural system is practiced on a rotation of 30 years [1]. With the coppice crop, one shoot or stool is kept after one year. Because of the great crown development, the final spacing for fruit orchards is from 10 x 10 to 12 x 12 m (80-115 trees/ha) [3]. [1, 3, 6, 7] [Growth]: "Z. mauritiana is a moderately fast growing species with slow seedling growth, attaining a height of 5-10 cm and 15-35 cm by the end of first and second years, respectively. Its growth can be improved by the inoculation of soil with its mycorrhizas. Under irrigated conditions in India and Pakistan, Z. mauritiana shows rapid growth. Mean annual diameter increment of approximately 2.5-4 cm and average height growth during the first season of 0.6-1.7 m have been reported by Troup. Luna

five years old the average diameter growth rate was 3.2 cm per year and height growth was 0.6 cm per year, whereas at 30 years the respective rates were 1.1 cm diameter and 0.2 m height per year" [1]. [Fruit development]: "Fruit set depends on cross-pollination by insects (including bees) attracted by the fragrance and nectar. Cross-incompatibility occurs and cultivars have to be matched for good fruit set; some cultivars produce good crops parthenocarpically. Fruit development takes 4 months in early cultivars to 6 months in late cultivars. Fruit quality is best under hot, sunny and dry condition, but there should be a rainy season to support extension growth and flowering, ideally leaving enough residual soil moisture to carry the fruit to maturity. If harsh weather persists, the tree goes dormant" [6]. [Fruit yield]: No yield records are available in South-East Asia. Generally, "the average fruit yields on marginal lands vary from 30 to 50 kg per tree. However, improved varieties, when grown on fertile soil and given irrigation, yield 80-200 kg of fruit per tree (100-200 kg/tree [6])" [1]. [1, 6] [Fruit harvesting]: Fruit is collected when it is fully ripe and is graded according to size."[1] "The fruits do not all ripen at once, so 4 or more pickings are needed to clear the crop. Fruit picked unripe becomes acrid instead of ripe, and overripe fruit loses its attractive color and crisp texture" [6]. In

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states that the rate of growth is higher in young plants as compared to older plants, for example, at

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Thailand this fruit is available in the markets from August to February [6], in the Philippines the season is from November to February [6]. [Handling after harvest]: "The fruit is not vulnerable; it handles well and shelf life is about one week. Cold storage can extend the supply season by one month or more" [6].

Q. Propagation : [General]: Propagation of Z. mauritiana can be carried out by direct sowing, planting, coppice, root suckers, cuttings, air-layering, budding and pollarding. [1, 7] [Seed collection and storage]: The fruit contains approximately 3,300 seeds/kg [1]. Seeds are viable for at least two years [1] although germination declines with age. "In India and Pakistan ripe fruits are collected from the trees in February-March and are depulped immediately by manual rubbing. In the same countries, hollow stones are separated by floatation in a 18 % solution of common salt. Floating stones are discarded and others are dried in the sun for a week. It is necessary to carry out presowing treatment to improve germination. This is done by either breaking the hard bony shell, which may injure the seed, or treating with concentrated sulphuric acid for 45 minutes. The broken shells are soaked in cold water for 1 to 2 days before sowing. When stored in gunny bags in a dry room, they have better germination than freshly-collected seeds" [1]. [Seed Propagation]: "In India and Pakistan direct sowing takes place by sowing untreated seed by mid-June or treated ones in July. In the nursery, sowing is done in February-March" [1]. For direct

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sowing it is important that the stones are exposed to the sun as there is a high risk of germination

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failure if they are sown in partial or full shade. Pretreated and cracked stones germinate within 17 days [1] (7 days for extracted kernels [6]) and untreated stones take 3-6 weeks [1] (4 weeks [6]) to germinate. "Germination capacity and plant percent are generally high but very variable - between 3195% (40-80% in India [1]) and 27-82%, respectively. Z. mauritania cv. Gola seeds showed the highest rates of germination when treated with 200 ppm of GA3"[1]. According to other sources "germination is slow and difficult and many seeds are empty. When sown in containers at the nursery, the young plants are moved out 2-3 months after germination" [3]. [1, 3, 6] [Vegetative propagation]: "Although most existing trees have been raised from seed, vegetative propagation is increasingly practiced as it is the only way to obtain trees which are true to type" [6]. Trees can be propagated on their own roots through cutting or air layers, but budding or cleft grafting is more common. Root suckers or seeds-often from wild Ziziphus species are used to raise the rootstocks. Budding is done in the growing season or before the onset of the monsoon: "T-budding or ring budding are the recommended methods" [6]. A number of budding techniques, such as shield, patch and flute budding are also used for this purpose, with the best results obtained in flute budding." [1]. Whip grafting is the recommended grafting method, but suckle grafting-a form of inarching-is preferred in Thailand" [6]. In India alone, about 125 grafted cultivars [1] are grown for fruit. "In India

and Pakistan, horticultural varieties are grafted onto wild type seedling root stocks, usually at 6-12 months old. They are then allowed to grow in the nursery for another 6-12 months before planting in the field. The grafting is sometimes done directly on the seedlings growing in the field" [1]. [1, 3, 6]

R. Hazards and protection : [Pests]: Several insects attack Z. mauritiana trees. They feed on the sap, and larvae of many insect species defoliate the trees. Among the fruit borers or fruit flies that cause serious damage and crop losses are Meridarchis scyrodes and Carpomyia vesuviana. For Z. mauritiana, damage by 13 species of insect pests [1], including fruit borers, leaf-eating caterpillars, weevils, leafhoppers and mealy bugs has been reported. [1, 6] [Diseases]: Powdery mildew can be so serious that leaves and fruitlets drop, but it can be adequately controlled. Lesser diseases are brown rot and leafspot. Known fungus species that cause damage on the tree are Caldosporium zizyphi and Oidium spp. [1, 6] [Others]: "Z. mauritiana is prone to attack by the parasitic plant Cuscuta reflexa, which should immediately be removed from the trees if present" [1]. Seedlings of the natural regeneration are affected by fire, hacking, saplings by livestock browsing. [1]

This species is not considered to be threatened. [7]

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) : "Found wild and cultivated in many parts of Cambodia along the roads" [4].

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) : [World distribution]: [Native]: Probably originated from the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent or S-China. ("Native in the arid and semi-arid zones of Africa, Arabia, India and South East Asia" [3]). [1, 6] [Introduced]: Europe: Greece, Italy, Spain. Asia: Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, India (Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Indian Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh), Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkey, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Yemen.

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S. Conservation :

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Africa: Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania (Zanzibar), Tunisia, Western Sahara. Caribbean: Bahamas, Barbados. Central America: Belize. North America: USA. Oceania: Australia. [9, 10]

V. Miscellaneous4 : [Varieties]: "There are more than two varieties of the Jujube fruit which are commonly grown. The wild variety includes innumerable subvarieties all of which bear small fruits, almost tasteless berries and possess, myriads of thorns" [4]. "A number of cultivated and grafted varieties of Z. mauritiana have been developed for the production of fruit. Both spiny and spineless types of this species are found. Some variation in chemical contents of leaf fodder has also been observed in different geographical locations. Seeds of Z. mauritiana taken from 5 districts in Yunnan Province, China and Narkum, Myanmar, were tested for their morphological characteristics (seed shape, size, colour, weight) and germination characteristics (germination percentage, speed of germination etc.), and the growth patterns of the seedlings and young trees. A close relation was found between these characteristics, geographical distribution and climatic conditions. This information was found to be helpful in choosing better forms of the tree. Similarly, a study on variability, heritability and expected genetic gain was

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conducted for 12 growth characteristics in 30 genotypes of this species, of which all were highly

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variable. The coefficient of variation was highest for fruit set (16.9%), followed by number of leaves per shoot (14.2%), yield (12.9%), fruit drop percentage, shoot length and tree height. The highest heritability values were seen for the period of fruit set to ripening (99%). Expected genetic gain was highest for fruit set (143%) and lowest for days of pruning to flower initiation (3.5%)" [1]. [Fruit properties]: "Analyses make in India (first figure) and in Thailand (inside brackets) give the composition per 100g edible portion: water 86(71.5) g, Protein 0.8 (0.7) g, fat 0.1(1.7) g, carbohydrates 12.8(23.7) g, Ca 30(30) mg, P 30(30) mg, vitamin A 70(50)IU, vitamin C50-150(23) mg. The energy value amounts to 230 (470)kJ per 100 g" [6]. Another source ([3]) mentions the following properties: Water: 64,0-85.0%. Protein: 0.8-2.2%. Lipids: 0.1-0.3%. Sugar&starch: 20.0-32.0%. Mineral matter: 0.4-0.7%. Calorific value: 55-135 cal/100 g [3]. [Leaf properties]: "A number of alkaloids have been isolated from the leaves, which include coclaurine, isoboldine, norisoboldine, asimilobine, yuziphine and yuzirine" [4]. [Seed properties]: "The dried seed contains saponins such as jujubosides A and B, fixed oil and volatile oil" [4]. [Genetic resources and breeding]: There is a wide range of variation among seedling trees. Cultivars have resulted from selection and clonal propagation; breeding is complicated by incompatibility, which is presumably aggravated by the differing ploidy levels. Extensive cultivar collections are evaluated in

northern India, at research stations of the Hyryana Agricultural University, Hissar and the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, but so far germplasm is not being tested in South-East Asia."[6] [Prospects]: "Indian Jujube is common in the drier parts of South-East Asia; the fruits are well-liked because of their exceptionally firm and crisp flesh. The crop responds to selection and care by the grower. Hitherto studies of the crop have been largely limited to India, where ecological conditions are rather different. A much better understanding of growth, flowering and fruiting in South-East Asia is necessary to assess the potential for this crop in The region" [6]. [Fruit storage]: "Fruit can be conserved fresh in the refrigerator, in open boxes, at a temperature around 00C. They cannot be kept for more than 6 weeks" [3].

W. Further readings5 : Bal JS, 1992. Identification of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars through vegetative and fruit characters. Acta Horticulturae, No. 317:245-253; [23rd International Horticultural Congress, 27 August-1 September 1990, Florence, Italy]; 5 ref. [10]

Bisla SS, Daulta BS, 1986. Studies on variability, heritability and genetic advance for quality traits in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Sciences, 15(3-4):175-178; 8 ref.

Bisla SS, Daulta BS, 1988. Variability and heritability of some growth characters in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 45(1-2):29-33; 8 ref. [10]

von Carlowitz PG, 1991. Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs - Sources of Seeds and Inoculants. Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF. [10]

Champion HG, Seth SK, Khattak GM, 1965. Forest Types of Pakistan. Peshawar, Pakistan: Pakistan Forest Institute. [10]

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[10]

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Devi KR, Atluri JB, Reddi CS, 1989. Pollination ecology of Zizyphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae). Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences. Plant Sciences, 99(3):223-239. [10]

Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text]. [10]

Hocking D, 1993. Trees for drylands. Trees for drylands., xiii + 370 pp.; [Originally published by Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India]; 12 pp. of ref. [10]

Hore JK, Sen SK, 1994. Role of presowing seed treatment on germination, seedling growth and longevity of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam) seeds. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 28(4):285289. [10]

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Kalyan Naha, Hajam AG, Lal Chand, 1990. Trials on propagation of shrubs in Kashmir. Indian

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Forester, 116(12):938-941. [10]

Kamble AB, Desai UT, Choudhari SM, 1994. Effect of micronutrients on fruit set, fruit retention and yield of Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Annals of Arid Zone, 33(1):53-55; 7 ref. [10]

Kundu AB, Barik BR, Mondal DN, Dey AK, Banerji A, 1989. Zizyberanalic acid, a pentacyclic triterpenoid of Zizyphus jujuba.. Phytochemistry, 28(11):3155-3158; 6 ref. [10]

Kundu SS, Pareek OP, Gupta AK, 1995. Effect of time and severity of pruning on physico-chemical characteristics and yield of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 24(1):23-30; 13 ref. [10]

Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Plantation trees., xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections]. [10]

Mabberley DJ, 1997. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants., Ed. 2:xvi + 858 pp. [10]

Mawani PB, Singh SP, 1992. Effect of method and time of budding on budding success in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk) cv. Gola, part-I. Horticultural Journal, 5(1):31-35; 13 ref. [10]

Nanohar MS, Sen NL, Yadvendra JP, 1986. Phenotypic variation and its heritable components in some biometric characters in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 43(12):42-45; 7 ref. [10]

in Zizyphus mauritiana. Indian Journal of Forestry, 19(2):129-131; 17 ref. [10]

Parker RN, 1956. A forest flora for the Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore, Pakistan: Government Printing Press. [10]

Patel BH, Upadhyay VR, Muralidharan CM, Judal GS, 1988. Effect of various insecticides on honey bee, Apis florea Fabricius in 'ber' (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk). Current Science, 57(21):1199-1200; 5 ref. [10]

Pukesh S, Majumdar VL, Sharma M, 1993. Indian-Phytopathology., 46: 4, No. 415. Department of Plant Pathology, SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner 303 328, India.

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Nishi Mathur, Anil Vyas, 1996. Relative efficiency of different VAM fungi on growth and nutrient uptake

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[10]

Qaiser M, and Nazimuddin S, 1981. Flora of Pakistan. Rhamnaceae. Karachi, Pakistan: Department of Botany. University of Karachi. [10]

Shah BH, 1991. Some observations on the effect of forest tree species on ground vegetation at Pabbi Forest, Kharian. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 41(4):173-177; 6 ref. [10]

Sheikh MI, 1980. Effect of different treatments to hasten tree seed germination. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 30(4):176-180. [10]

Sheikh MI, 1981. Dry afforestation experiments in Peshawar. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 31(1):4143.

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[10]

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Siddiqui S, Gupta OP, 1996. Effect of attached pedicel on the shelf life of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk) fruit cv. Kaithli. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, 1(1):70-72; 6 ref. [10]

Singh SP, 1989. Wasteland development. Wasteland development., xx + 227 pp.; 96 ref. [10]

Syamal MM, Rajput CBS, 1989. Effect of pruning on growth, fruiting and fruit quality of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 46(3):364-367; 5 ref. [10]

Troup RS, 1921. The Silviculture of Indian trees. Vols. I-III. London, UK: Oxford University Press. [10]

Vyas HN, 1996. Pest complex of Zizyphus mauritiana Lamark. Crop Research Hisar, 11(2):216-218. [10]

Wang Yun, 1994. A preliminary study on the geographical provenance of Zizyphus mauritiana. Forest Research, 7(3):334-335; 2 ref. [10]

Yadav LS, Godara NR, 1989. Effect of planting distance and severity of pruning on flowering, fruit set and fruit retention in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Progressive Horticulture, 21(34):325-328; 8 ref.

X. References: [1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (1998-2000 edition). (CD-ROM).

[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[3] FAO, 1988: Fruit-bearing Forest Trees. FAO Forestry Paper.

[5] PROSEA, 1998: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (3) Timber trees: Lesser- known timbers.

[6] PROSEA, Plant Resources of South-East Asia 2- Edible fruits and nuts.

[7] Thames & Hudson, 2004, Tropical and Subtropical Trees.

[8] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988. Phnom Penh.

[9] Leang Horn, 2006: Own observations.

[10] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[4] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and Ethnobotanical Uses.

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Production Team Digital Species

NATURAL TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS

Production Team Digital Species

Project Development Coordinator: Jens Richter (DED) Msc. Forestry Science

Editorial Coordinator/Datasheet Editor/Picture Research:

Production Team | Digital Species

Mathias Petri (DED) Msc. Tropical International Forestry

1

Concept Designer and System Developer: Samoeun Sothyro Msc. Development Study Royal University of Phnom Penh.

Bsc. Forestry

Royal University of Agriculture

Ad. Database Development

University of Technology and Management

Datasheet Editor: Dr. Kersten F. Panzer Senior Expert Service

Production Team | Digital Species

SES

2

Patronage of Digital Species Project: Mr. Von Monin Dean of Forestry Faculty Royal University of Agriculture

Datasheet Editor: Sou Sontara

Prekleap National School of Agriculture -Forestry Department

Production Team | Digital Species

Msc. Forestry

3

Datasheet Editor: Sok Sokunthet (PNSA) Bsc. Forestry

Prekleap National School of Agriculture

Datasheet Editor/Glossary Editor: Leang Horn Bsc. Forestry

Royal University of Agriculture

Bsc. English Language

Production Team | Digital Species

Royal University of Phnom Penh

4

Datasheet Editor: Antje Bertram MSc. Tropical International Forestry

Datasheet Translator and Picture Collection: Hout Naborey Bsc. Forestry

Production Team | Digital Species

Royal University of Agriculture

5

Datasheet Translator and Glossary Collector: Yeang Donal Bsc. Forestry

Royal University of Agriculture

Bsc. English Language

Royal University of Phnom Penh

Datasheet Verifier: Samoeun Sothyrith General Medicine

Université de Science de la Santé

Production Team | Digital Species

Research on Medicinal Plant

6

Photo Collector: Ha Som Suorsdey Bsc. Forestry Royal University of Agriculture

Datasheet Verifier and Transfer: Samoeun Sothyroth Bsc. Environmental Management

Production Team | Digital Species

Royal University of Phnom Penh

7

Picture Contributors: Mr. Phorn Pheara (Bsc. Forestry) Mr. Kim Sobon (Bsc. Forestry) Mr. Von Monin (Msc. Forestry) Mr. Andras Matoni (Msc. Agronomy) Ms. Anja Olligschlager (Msc. Agronomy) Ms. Anne Weingart (PhD. Development Economics)

Production Team | Digital Species

DED –German Development Service . RUA –Royal University of Agriculture. NaTSystems – Natural Technology Systems. CBNRM LI – Community Based Natural Resource Management Learning Institute. PNSA – PrekLeap National School of Agriculture.

8